PCQA111 Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry Weeks 7–11 Reviewer

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering chemical kinetics, chemical equilibrium, acids and bases, periodic table history, Group IA, Group IB, Group IIA, Group IIB, Group IIIA, Group IIIB, Group IVA, Group IVB, flame tests, and sulfide precipitates.

Chemical kinetics

The branch of chemistry that studies reaction rates and the mechanism or step sequence by which chemical reactions occur.

Rate of reaction

The amount of chemical change occurring in a given time interval, measured by the quantity of products formed or reactants lost per unit time.

Reaction mechanism

The complete sequence of individual elementary steps by which a chemical reaction proceeds, which may involve intermediate products.

Reversible reaction

A reaction that can proceed in both forward and backward directions under the same conditions, reaching dynamic equilibrium when forward and reverse rates are equal.

Simultaneous reaction

A reaction system in which two or more chemical processes occur at the same time and may compete for the same reactants or reaction conditions.

Consecutive reaction

A reaction proceeding through a series of steps where the product of one step becomes the reactant for the subsequent step.

Molecular collision theory

The theory stating that chemical change results from molecular collisions, requiring sufficient activation energy and favorable spatial orientation for bonds to break and form.

Reaction rate temperature rule

The rule noted in lecture stating that the reaction rate approximately doubles for every $10\,^\circ\text{C}$ rise in temperature.

Catalyst

A substance that changes the reaction rate without being consumed or permanently altered, allowing it to be recovered unchanged.

Positive catalyst (accelerator)

A catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction.

Negative catalyst (inhibitor)

A substance that decreases the rate of a chemical reaction; lecture examples include sodium benzoate preservatives and antioxidants in oils.

Dynamic equilibrium

A state established in a closed system where forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, and reactant and product concentrations remain constant even though reactions continue.

Homogeneous equilibrium

A chemical equilibrium state in which all reacting species and products reside in the same physical phase.

Heterogeneous equilibrium

A chemical equilibrium state in which reacting species and products reside in more than one physical phase.

Law of mass action

The law stating that the speed of a chemical change is directly proportional to the concentration of reacting substances.

Le Chatelier’s principle

The principle stating that when a system at dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, its equilibrium position shifts in a direction that counteracts the disturbance to re-establish equilibrium.

Arrhenius acid and base

Under Arrhenius theory, an acid yields $H^+$ or $H_3O^+$ in water, while a base yields $OH^-$ in water; the theory is strictly limited to aqueous solutions.

Brønsted–Lowry theory

Acid-base theory defining an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor; applies in aqueous and non-aqueous media and features conjugate pairs differing by one proton.

Lewis theory

Acid-base theory defining an acid as an electron-pair acceptor and a base as an electron-pair donor, forming coordinate covalent bonds.

Ionic product of water ($K_w$)

The equilibrium expression $K_w = [H^+][OH^-]$, which equals $1.0 \times 10^{-14}$ at $25\,^\circ\text{C}$.

Henderson–Hasselbalch equation

The buffer formula expressed as $\text{pH} = \text{p}K_a + \log\left(\frac{[A^-]}{[HA]}\right)$, where $\text{p}K_a = -\log(K_a)$.

Buffer

A solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid, that resists pH changes when small amounts of acid or base are added.

Common-ion effect

The phenomenon in which the solubility of a sparingly soluble ionic compound decreases upon the addition of a soluble compound that supplies a shared ion.

Solubility product ($K_{sp}$)

The equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a sparingly soluble ionic compound, equal to the product of dissolved ion concentrations raised to their stoichiometric powers.

Complex formation constant ($K_f$)

The equilibrium stability or formation constant for a complex ion, defined for $M + xL \rightleftharpoons ML_x$ as $K_f = \frac{[ML_x]}{[M][L]^x}$.

Antoine Lavoisier

Regarded as the Father of Modern Chemistry; authored an early chemical classification containing a list of 33 elements.

Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner

German chemist who formulated the Law of Triads, grouping elements with similar chemical properties into triads.

John Newlands

English chemist who arranged chemical elements by increasing atomic mass and proposed the Law of Octaves.

Henry Moseley

English physicist who developed the modern periodic table by arranging elements according to their atomic numbers rather than atomic masses.

Group IA (alkali metals)

The most reactive family of metals, containing one valence electron, not occurring free in nature, and forming soluble salts; stored under inert solvent.

Hydrogen

The lightest and most abundant element, discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1766 and called inflammable air; its isotopes are protium ($^1H$), deuterium ($^2H$), and radioactive tritium ($^3H$).

Lithium

The lightest metal, discovered by J. A. Arfvedson and named from the Greek word lithos, meaning stone.

Lithium carbonate ($Li_2CO_3$)

A Group IA drug sold under names such as Lithane, Lithase, Eskalith, and Quilonium-R, indicated for bipolar disorder.

Lithium hydroxide

A basic lithium compound utilized in spacesuits to absorb carbon dioxide from exhaled air.

Sodium (Natrium)

The fourth most abundant element in Earth and the predominant cation in extracellular fluid; its salts are widely used to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments.

Sodium bicarbonate ($NaHCO_3$)

Baking soda; a systemic antacid and carbonating agent whose adverse effects include systemic alkalosis, rebound hyperacidity, and edema.

Sodium carbonate forms

Compounds used in Solvay process and glass making: anhydrous is soda ash (primary standard in titrations), decahydrate is washing soda ($Na_2CO_3\cdot 10H_2O$), and sesquihydrate is trona.

Sodium dihydrogen phosphate

Active ingredient in Fleet enema; functions as a saline cathartic, urinary acidifier, and dietary phosphate source.

Sodium metabisulfite ($Na_2S_2O_5$)

Also known as sodium pyrosulfite; a water-soluble antioxidant and reducing agent used in pharmaceutical formulations.

Sodium chloride ($NaCl$)

Rock salt, halite, or table salt; functions as an electrolyte replenisher, tonicity adjuster, condiment, preservative, and antidote for silver poisoning.

Sodium citrate

An alkalizer, buffer, diuretic, expectorant, and sequestering agent; acts as an anticoagulant in vitro and a pro-coagulant in vivo.

Sodium fluoride

The first fluoride compound utilized in public water fluoridation; acts as an anticariogenic agent and bone-formation stimulant.

Sodium hydroxide

Caustic soda, lye, or sosa; a very deliquescent saponifying agent and acid titrant that attacks glass and is a component of soda lime.

Dakin’s solution

A diluted sodium hypochlorite ($NaClO$) solution utilized as an antiseptic surgical irrigant.

Labarraque’s solution

A sodium hypochlorite solution utilized as an oxidizing agent, bleaching agent, and disinfectant.

Sodium sulfate

Glauber’s salt or sal mirabile ($Na_2SO_4$); used as a saline cathartic and in detergent and paper-pulp production.

Sodium thiosulfate

Photographer’s hypo; functions as a chemical antidote in cyanide poisoning and reduces toxic elemental iodine to iodide in iodine toxicity.

Potassium (Kalium)

Potash; the predominant intracellular cation responsible for diuretic action and muscle contraction; deficiency causes hypokalemia and toxicity causes hyperkalemia.

Darrow’s solution

An oral glucose/electrolyte solution containing potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium lactate, and water for injection.

Potassium hydroxide

Caustic potash or lye potash; a saponifying agent used specifically to produce soft soaps (in contrast to soda used for hard soap).

Potassium permanganate ($KMnO_4$)

Mineral chameleon; a powerful oxidizing agent and antiseptic ($1:5000$) utilized in permanganometry.

Rochelle salt

Potassium sodium tartrate or sal signette; functions as a saline cathartic and sequestering agent.

Cream of tartar

Potassium bitartrate; identified in lecture as the only insoluble potassium salt.

Ammonium

Described in lecture as the only hypothetical alkali metal; prepared by the Haber process and associated with diuretic, buffer, expectorant, and anticariogenic actions.

Ammonium chloride

Muriate of hartshorn; functions pharmaceutically as a urinary acidifier, diuretic, and expectorant.

Ammonium carbonate

Sal volatile, hartshorn, Preston salt, or baker’s ammonia; used as an expectorant, antacid, and respiratory stimulant.

Ammoniated mercury ($HgNH_2Cl$)

White precipitate; an inorganic mercury compound used topically as an anti-infective.

Group IB (coinage metals)

Family comprising copper, silver, and gold; characterized as highly malleable, forming coordination complexes/chelates, and capable of being recovered free from ores.

Copper (Cuprum)

The only reddish metal and second-best conductor; present in hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase; toxicity leads to Wilson’s disease (antidote: penicillamine).

Brass and bronze

Copper alloys described in lecture: brass is composed of copper and zinc ($Cu + Zn$); bronze is composed of copper and tin ($Cu + Sn$).

Cupric sulfate ($CuSO_4\cdot 5H_2O$)

Blue vitriol, blue stone, or Roman vitriol; ingredient in Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, and Fehling’s reagents, Bordeaux mixture, and an antidote for phosphorus poisoning.

Paris Green

Copper aceto-arsenate; an inorganic copper compound utilized as an insecticide.

Silver (Argentum)

The best electrical conductor and second most malleable metal; possesses oligodynamic action and causes argyria in chronic toxicity (antidote: normal saline).

Lunar caustic

Silver nitrate ($AgNO_3$) / caustic pencil / indelible ink; used in wart treatment, newborn ophthalmic antiseptic prophylaxis, and as a $0.5\%$ wet dressing.

Howe’s solution

Ammoniacal silver nitrate ($Ag(NH_3)_2NO_3$); used as a dental protective and desensitizing agent, and functions as Tollens’ reagent.

Gold (Aurum)

King of metals; the most malleable and ductile metal and third-best conductor; dissolved by aqua regia and selenic acid.

Chrysotherapy

Aurotherapy utilizing gold compounds (aurothioglucose, gold sodium thiomalate, auranofin) in the management of rheumatoid arthritis and gout.

Beryllium

The most toxic alkaline earth metal (Group IIA); not employed in medicine; historically used in fluorescent lamps.

Magnesium

The second most abundant intracellular cation; present in chlorophyll and Grignard reagent; acts as a laxative, CNS depressant, and natural calcium-channel blocker (antidote: calcium gluconate).

Universal antidote

A poison antidote formula composed of 1 part magnesium oxide ($MgO$), 2 parts activated charcoal, and 1 part tannic acid.

Epsom salt

Magnesium sulfate; an oral cathartic, an IM anticonvulsant for pre-eclampsia/eclampsia, and an antidote for barium toxicity and barbiturate poisoning.

Milk of magnesia

Magnesia magma / magnesium hydroxide ($Mg(OH)_2$); antacid and laxative (may cause diarrhea; combined with aluminum hydroxide and simethicone in Maalox).

Talc

Hydrated magnesium silicate (soapstone or French chalk); utilized as a dusting powder and as a clarifying/filtering agent.

Magnesium citrate

Lemonada purganti or purgative lemon; an osmotic saline laxative.

Calcium

The second most abundant extracellular cation; major constituent of bones and teeth as hydroxyapatite; requires vitamin D for absorption and is essential for blood coagulation and muscle contraction.

Slaked lime

Calcium hydroxide, milk of lime, or calcium hydrate ($Ca(OH)_2$); an antacid and saponifying agent that prevents milk curdling.

Quicklime

Calcium oxide, lime, or calx ($CaO$); component of Bordeaux mixture and used as an insecticide.

Calcium sulfate forms

Hemihydrate ($CaSO_4\cdot\frac{1}{2}H_2O$) is plaster of Paris (used for surgical casts and dental impressions); dihydrate ($CaSO_4\cdot 2H_2O$) is gypsum or terra alba (also used as a rodenticide).

Dibasic calcium phosphate

The recommended calcium salt form utilized as an oral electrolyte replenisher.

Strontium

Alkaline earth metal used in red pyrotechnic flares; radioactive strontium is a bone scanner; strontium chloride desensitizes teeth in Sensodyne but darkens teeth.

Barium

Heavy alkaline earth metal used in green flares; produces toxic baritosis (antidote: magnesium sulfate / Epsom salt).

Group IIB (volatile metals)

Subgroup containing zinc, cadmium, and mercury; exhibits auto-complexation; zinc is the only amphoteric metal in the group.

Zinc

Essential soft metal found in insulin and carbonic anhydrase; coats iron to produce galvanized iron; deficiency causes parakeratosis; toxicity causes metal fume fever (antidote: $NaHCO_3$).

Burnett’s disinfectant fluid

Zinc chloride ($ZnCl_2$); a corrosive antiseptic and disinfectant, dentin desensitizer, and component of Lucas reagent.

Zinc oxide

Zinc white; topical protectant and astringent present in Lassar’s paste and calamine lotion.

Zinc sulfide

White lotion active ingredient; designated in lecture as the only white sulfide; used as a parasiticide, topical protectant, and antiseptic.

Lithopone

A topical protectant and paint pigment mixture composed of $30\%$ zinc sulfide ($ZnS$) and $70\%$ barium sulfide ($BaS$).

White vitriol

Zinc sulfate heptahydrate ($ZnSO_4\cdot 7H_2O$); an emetic, ophthalmic astringent, and pharmaceutical necessity in preparing white lotion.

Cadmium

Volatile metal with astringent action; poisoning causes Itai-Itai disease; treated with palliative therapy, BAL, and immediate EDTA.

Cadmium sulfide

An anti-seborrheic agent identified in the Group IIB lecture as the only yellow sulfide.

Calomel

Mercurous chloride ($Hg_2Cl_2$); a cathartic that produces black lotion when combined with lime water.

Corrosive sublimate

Mercuric chloride ($HgCl_2$); a water-soluble, highly poisonous mercury salt used as a disinfectant.

Minamata disease

A severe neurological syndrome caused by mercury poisoning; mercury toxicity is also associated with pink disease (acrodynia) and erethism.

Aluminum

The most common metal and third most abundant element in Earth’s crust; forms amphoteric hydroxides and is used as an astringent, antiseptic, and antiperspirant (causes constipation).

Aluminon

A dye reagent that detects aluminum ions in aqueous solution by adsorbing onto aluminum hydroxide to form a characteristic red lake.

Thenard’s Blue Test

Cobalt nitrate and ammonia test for aluminum that produces a characteristic blue ash of cobalt meta-aluminate ($Co(AlO_2)_2$).

Boric acid ($H_3BO_3$)

Boracic acid or sal sedativum; an ophthalmic buffer, tonicity adjuster ($\text{E-value} = 0.52$), eyewash ($2.45\text{–}2.5\%$), and suppository base (boroglycerin glycerite); toxic if ingested or on broken skin.

Borax ($Na_2B_4O_7$)

Sodium borate or sodium tetraborate; component of Dobell’s solution, cold cream, and an astringent/antiseptic throat and eyewash.

Feldman’s buffer system

An ophthalmic borate buffer system with a pH range of $7.0\text{–}8.2$, composed of boric acid, sodium chloride to provide isotonicity, and an alkaline sodium borate solution.

Atkins and Pantin buffer system

A borate buffer system covering a pH range of $7.6\text{–}11$, composed of alkaline sodium carbonate solution plus an acid buffer solution of boric acid and sodium chloride.