Major Events

Linguistic protests & call for state reorganization

• Pre-independence plan: draw state boundaries on linguistic lines

• Fragile, post-indep. situation postponed plan but there was growing pressure for redrawing

• Nehru didn’t want state lines drawn on linguistic lines bc he feared it would further divide India

  • Govt of India formed a commission to decide how rest of country could be redrawn

• Once Nehru left power India drew linguistic lines and the outcome was not as bad as feared

• Allowed for better administration; pride in culture didn’t undermine “national” identity

Kashmir conflicts

• One of the 3 holdouts of the 500+ princely states that ceceded

• Became divided between Pakistan and India

• There was no real international border which led to several flareups

• India allowed Jammu & Kashmir special autonomy and its own state constitution: could define who “permanent residents” of J & K

Efforts to pass Hindu Code Bill

• In the 1950s the Hindu Code Bill was proposed to parliament, outlining reforms to the laws governing aspects (ie. marriage, divorce, inheritance and property rights)

• It was spear-headed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

• Following a victory in the 1952 general elections led by Nehru, the govt split the comprehensive bill into 4 distinct acts

  • Hindu Succession Act (gave women equal rights as men in inheritance/ownership of property) passed

  • Hindu Marriage Act (legalized divorce for women) also passed

  • Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act

  • Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act

• Strict Hindu beliefs put off the passing of a uniform civil code which would have established equal reforms for both Muslims and Hindus

• While Nehru was able to pass reforms to the Hindu code that gave women more freedoms, he hesitated to institute a civil code for everyone as he was already on unstable standing with Hindus in India

  
  

Tribal protests & independence movements

• The consolidation of tribes posed a serious problem; solution was scheduled tribes received reserved seats

• Akali Dhal = party in power in Punjab (represents Sikh interests), more moderate

  • Had supported Indira’s rivals in Janata Party

  • Rival = fundamentalist preacher Bhindranwale

• Bhindranwale & followers blockaded themselves in Golden Temple

• Indira had to act; ordered “Operation Blue Star” (debacle!)

• Many Sikhs at temple killed

  • As a result Oct 1984 - Indira’s Sikh bodyguards killed her b/c of it

Emergency Rule of 1975-77

• Late 1960s, Congress lost strength due to economic problems & corruption

• Indira undermined unity of party by seperating and creating her own section (Congress-I)

  • Admin corruption; tax-evasion rampant

• Rising opposition (ex: Anti-Price Rise & JP Movement) led to constant pressure on Indira

  • Severe issues with food shortages, rising unemployement, discontent (calls for major, radical changes)

• Anti-Price Rise Movement: Women’s protests regarding rising food prices spread from Maharashtra = pressure on Indira

• JP Movement: Massive political and social protest movement that argued persisting poverty, landlessness, soaring prices demonstrated govt had failed in its responsibility to the people

Cause of Emergency Rule: JP Movement tried to immobilize govt & called for Indira’s resignation

Result: Indira enacted (constitutionally-permitted) “emergency rule” - argued it was necessary for econ. dvlpt, efficiency, arrest corruption in govt, and forestall rebellions

• Civil liberties suspended; opposition parties banned & jailed; postponed parliamentary elections of 1976

Aftermath: In effort to legitimize rule, Indira called for elections and opposition “Janata Party” gained 295 seats to Congress

• Janata Coalition amended constitution to make it more difficult for future leaders to curb civil liberties during an E. Rule

Economic/Land Reform (including Five Year Plans)

Five Year Plans aka “planned economy” successfully grew economy

1. Agriculture focus

• Increased by 25% in 1st 5YP, increased 20% in 2nd 5YP (Ex: Community Development Blocks)

2. Industrial focus (7% growth/year)

• Needed to grow industrial base (heavy industry→ iron/steel)

• Goal = absorb employment needs (production doubled by 1964)

3. Eco self-sufficiency goal

• Decrease dependence on imports

• Public sector valued over private investment (ie rail, air, energy under govt control)

• From 1960s, attempt to make India self-sufficient in food production

  • Led to high tariff barriers and pride in being self-reliant!

Mandal Commission (Reservation of additional seats)

Established under Janata Party government whose goal was to identify the OBCs of India and recommend ways to address caste discrimination and inequality

• Their original suggestion was to increase reservations by 27% for OBCs (ie. federal jobs, edu & positions)

  • However, BJP and upper middle class opposed this

• 1992 Supreme Court case allowed OBCs to be considered for reservation but couldn’t be more than 50% or from the “creamy layer”

  • Upper castes and classes opposed

• Despite the national census no longer recognizing the caste system, many functions of government discriminated against OBC’s, leading to the underrepresentation of several groups of people in India. However, this led to the rise of many anti-reservation protests across India.

Communists in Kerala

• 1957 - CPI (Communist Party) won majority of seats in Kerala & instituted land and education reforms

• Opposition obstructed the efforts (strikes, demonstrations, etc)

• CPI govt responded w/ police force & mass arrests

• Opposition pressured the central govt to enact Article 356 (Emergency Powers) to dismiss the govt

• 1959 - Nehru bowed to pressure to call Emerg. Rule (dismissed govt)

• 6 months later, elections→ Congress coalition beats CPI & forms govt

Shah Bano Case/Religous Issues

• Shah Bano appealed to the Supreme Court for maintenance from her husband under Indian National Law

• The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Shah Bano claiming her appeal was viable under Indian National Law

• Further, the court favored the establishment of a Uniform Civil Code

• Later, the Congress Party passed the Muslim Women Bill that undermined the verdict of the Supreme Court and sparked protests