PSYC330 Exam 1

equifinality vs multifinality

equifinality: different factors —> SAME outcome

multifinality: one factor —> MULTIPLE outcomes

orchid vs dandelion

dandelion: resilient, adaptable

orchid: stress-sensitive, vulnerable

underlying assumptions of theories

1. multiple factors interact

2. child and environment influence each other

3. continuities and discontinuities

3 major perspectives

1. biological

2. psychological

3. family, social, cultural

biological perspectives

• neural plasticity

• genes (predispositions)

• brain structures

• endocrine system

• neurotransmitters

brain structures

• brainstem: autonomic

• limbic: emotion/learning

• basal ganglia: cognition/emotion

• cortex: reasoning/planning

brain lobes

• frontal: self-control

• parietal: sensory processing

• temporal: emotional maturity

• corpus callosum: consciousness/self-awareness

endocrine system

HPA axis controls cortisol release

neurotransmitters

GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, serotonin

psychological perspectives

• emotions

• temperament

• social learning

• social cognition

• conditioning

temperament

• positive affect

• fearful

• negative affect

social learning

behavior learned through observing others (ex. Bobo doll)

social cognition

how children think about themselves and the world

classical vs operant conditioning

classical: involuntary responses to stimuli

operant: voluntary behavior and consequences

ABC model

• antecedent (setting)

• behavior

• consequence

positive punishment

add something —> decrease behavior (ex. chore)

positive reinforcement

add something —> increase behavior (ex. praise)

negative punishment

remove something —> decrease behavior (ex. take away toy)

negative reinforcement

remove something —> increase behavior (ex. parent stops making demand)

family, social, and cultural perspectives

• attachment types

• contextual/ecological influences

attachment types

1. secure

2. insecure

   1. anxious/avoidant

   2. anxious/resistant

3. disorganized

anxious/avoidant attachment

crave closeness but fear vulnerability

anxious/resistant attachment

fear abandonment

disorganized attachment

difficulty regulating emotions

pseudoscience

benefit based on testimonials rather than scientific evidence (ex. facilitated communication for autism)

research process

1. theory/hypotheses

2. sample, measures, design

3. collect data, analyze/interpret

incidence vs prevalence rates

incidence: new cases

prevalence: all existing cases

correlates vs causes

correlates: variables that are related/associated

causes: influences outcome (requires true experiment)

risk vs protective factors

risk: increase chance of outcome

protective: decrease chance of outcome

reliability vs validity

reliability: consistency/repeatability

validity: accuracy

prospective vs retrospective design

prospective: follow participants over time (expensive, time-consuming)

retrospective: ask participants about past

moderating vs mediating variables

moderating: changes strength of relationship

mediating: explains how/why relationship occurs

why is random assignment not always possible?

researchers can’t assign human traits or life experiences (ex. depressed vs non-depressed adolescents)

randomized control trial (RCT)

evaluates treatment effectiveness using random assignment

efficacy vs effectiveness

efficacy: intervention effectiveness under controlled conditions (internal validity)

effectiveness: intervention effectiveness in real-world settings (external validity)

ABAB study

baseline —> treatment —> withdraw —> resume treatment

• tests cause and effect

multiple baseline design

baseline —> treatment —> follow-up

• staggers treatment across behaviors, setting, and people

• no withdrawal

purposes of assessment

1. diagnosis

2. prognosis

3. treatment

evidence-based assessment

• multiple reliable/valid methods

• developmentally and culturally sensitive

• assess strengths and weaknesses

assessment components

• history

• interviews

• rating scales

• behavior observations

• psychological tests

• behavioral assessment

• ongoing hypothesis testing

idiographic vs nomothetic approach

idiographic: individual child/family

nomothetic: generalizes to groups

developmental norms

vary by age, gender, and culture

categorical vs dimensional classification

categorical: disorder or no disorder (DSM-5)

dimensional: symptoms on continuum (CBCL)

limitations of dimensional approach

• depends on sampling, method, and informant

• unclear “norm”

• misses context/function

DSM-5 neurodevelopmental disorders

• intellectual

• ASD

• communication

• specific learning

• ADHD

• motor (tourettes)

DSM pros and cons

pros:

• standardized language

• clear criteria

• recognition/understanding of child’s problem

cons:

• oversimplify complex problems

• children might meet 5 of 6 criteria and not get help they need

clinical interviews

• large amount of info in brief period

• developmental and family history

• semi-structured are more reliable (ex. KSADS, ADIS)

behavioral assessment

• specific to child

• identify target behaviors

• functional analysis (ABC)

behavioral observation

• records baseline behavior (can use role-play)

• supports ABC analysis

psychological testing

• standardized tests of knowledge, skills, personality

• child’s scores compared with norms

goals of ASD treatment

1. improve child functioning (reduce impairment)

2. improve family functioning

3. societal participation/safety

prevention types (universal vs selective vs indicated)

1. universal: everyone

2. selective: high risk groups

3. indicated: children showing early signs of problem

developmentally-oriented treatment

tailored to child’s developmental level/milestones

cultural considerations of treatment

• avoid stereotypes

• consider values/norms

• cultural compatibility (treatment more effective)

eclectic approach

integrates multiple theoretical approaches

psychodynamic treatment

• cause: unconscious and conscious conflicts

• focus: increase awareness of unconscious factors

  • not evidence-based

behavioral treatment

• cause: behaviors are learned

• focus: modify behavior/environment

  • positive reinforcement + modeling

cognitive treatment

• cause: faulty thinking

• focus: change cognitions

  • ex. “nothing I do is ever right” —> “this mistake doesn’t define my overall abilities”

cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT)

• cause: faulty thinking and faulty learning

• focus: change thoughts, teach coping strategies + self-regulation

client-centered treatment

• assumption: child can develop self-understanding and grow

• focus: create therapeutic setting with unconditional acceptance

family treatment

• cause: child’s problems reflect family dysfunction

• focus: address family issues

biological treatment

• cause: psychobiological impairment

• focus: medication and other biological approaches

  • often combined with other treatments

common medications

• stimulants/non-stimulants (ADHD)

• antidepressants (depression, OCD, PTSD)

• antipsychotics (delusions, hallucinations)

• mood stabilizers (bipolar)

• anti-anxiety

expert-consensus vs scientific approach

expert-consensus: expert opinions/guidelines (evidence incomplete)

scientific: evidence from research (EBT)

evidence-based treatment

• good sample

• random assignment

• treatment manuals

• multiple outcomes with blind raters

• statistical significance

• replication

new initiatives for treatment

• increase recognition

• expand delivery (schools, telehealth)

cultural formation interview (CFI)

• before diagnostic interview

• goals: gain understanding of patients values, beliefs, and background

ADHD diagnostic criteria

• inattentive and/or hyperactive/impulsive symptoms

• impairment

• onset prior to age 12, 6+ months, 2+ settings

ADHD-PI

• predominantly inattentive

• disorganized/spacey

• anxious/withdrawn (internalization)

• generally diagnosed later

ADHD-HI

• predominantly hyperactive-impulsive

• rarest group

• common in preschoolers (may become ADHD-C later)

ADHD-C

• combined presentation

• 6 or more symptoms in both categories

• most common and most referred for treatment

ADHD DSM controversy

• vague terms

• research based heavily on boys

• requirements: onset, 6 months, 2 settings

causes of ADHD

• strong genetic contribution

• differences in brain structure and function

• NOT caused by poor parenting, sugar, food additives, lead

executive functioning

• brain’s management system

• ADHD —> lack of self-control and poor inhibition

ADHD associated problems

• peer problems

• family dysfunction

• self-esteem

• depression

• learning problems

ADHD peer problems

• inattentive —> ignored

• hyperactive/impulsive —> rejected

ADHD comorbidity

• 80% have other disorders

  • ODD/OCD

  • depression

  • learning disabilities

  • substance abuse

ADHD medications

• stimulants effective in short-term

  • decrease disruption and increase productivity

• side effects = insomnia, decreased appetite

ADHD treatments

• medication

• behavior management

• parent training

• classroom management (daily report card)

• organizational skills

• summer treatment programs

ADHD behavioral treatment components

• structure/routine

• clear rules

• time out/loss of privileges

• effective commands

• token systems

daily report card (DRC)

1. set goals

2. define target behaviors

3. explain to child

4. reward system

5. monitor/modify program

summer treatment program (STP)

• all day for 5-8 weeks

• group-based academic/recreational activities

• weekly parent training

ADHD treatment considerations

• must address impairments across settings

• school support for learning disabilities (504/IEP)

multimodal treatment for ADHD (MTA)

• 579 children, 14 months

• children assigned to medication, combined treatment, behavior therapy, or community care

• medication + combined worked better than behavior + CC

  • in long-term, differences disappeared

historical view of ASD

past: blamed lack of parental love

present: brain-based neurodevelopmental disorder

3 defining features of ASD

1. social interaction impairments

2. communication impairments

3. restricted + repetitive behavior/interests

ASD social interaction impairments

• poor emotional and social reciprocity

• unusual nonverbal behaviors

• limited expressiveness

• atypical face processing

• reduced social imitation, shared attention, and pretend play

ASD communication impairments

• preverbal communication deficits

  • protoimperative over protodeclarative gestures

• pronoun reversals

• echolalia

• perseverative speech

• pragmatic deficits

protoimperative vs protodeclarative gestures

protoimperative: request object

protodeclarative: share experience/attention

perseverative speech

repeating a word/topic after it’s no longer relevant

restricted/repetitive behaviors (ASD)

• repetitive movements (sensory and motor)

• insistence on sameness

• self-stimulation

ASD intellectual deficits and strengths

• 70% have intellectual impairment

• often lower verbal and higher nonverbal scores

• splinter skills (one area) + savants

ASD sensory/perceptual impairments

• over/under-sensitivity

• difficulty shifting of attention

• difficulty integrating senses

ASD cognitive/motivational deficits

• social understanding difficulties

• theory of mind deficits

theory of mind

understanding other’s thoughts and mental states

ASD general deficits

• executive functioning

• weak central coherence (focus on details rather than the whole)

ASD medical characteristics

• seizures

• sleep

• GI problems

• some have larger head size

ASD developmental course

• often identified by parents before age 2

• reliable detection at 12-18 months (screen at 18-24)

causes of ASD

• genetic + environmental influences

• brain abnormalities/atypical connectivity

ASD brain abnormalities

• less pruning

• grey and white matter overgrowth

• structural differences

• atypical connectivity in default mode network