modern youth exam 2

self-concept

• what is believed about self

• May relate to individual traits or group membership 

• Aspects 

  • Self-schema

    • Beliefs about self which shape processing of information

  • Possible selves 

    • Images, dreams, or fears of what will become in the future

self-esteem

• how one feels about themself

• Sense of self-worth, positive or negative

Multiple selves

• Self-concept

  • Who am I

• Self-knowledge

  • How can I explain myself

• Self-esteem

  • Worth 

• Social self

  • Role in social settings

• Ideal self 

  • What do I want to become

ways in which to build a positive self-esteem

• Key factors 

  • Social relationships 

    • Can be friends, parents, romantic

    • Quality of bonds impacts view of self 

  • Economic status 

    • Indirect relationship 

    • Financial security can protect adolescent form negative outcomes 

  • Ethnic pride 

    • Acts as buffer between negative experiences 

  • Mental health 

    • Strong mental and emotional wellbeing tied with secure view 

• Additional factors 

  • Academics 

  • Isolation

  • Physical attractiveness 

  • Isolation

  • Transition to high school

Erikson’s view on identity

• 7 Identity Conflicts 

  • = steps to resolve to gain better understanding of self 

  • Temporal perspective 

    • Gain understanding of how long it takes to achieve goals

    • Failure → time confusion

  • Self-certainty

    • Developing self-confidence 

    • Failure → self consciousness 

  • Role experimentation

    • Find out who are through trying different things

    • Failure → role fixation

  • Apprenticeship 

    • Explore different occupations

    • Failure → work paralysis

  • Sexual polarization

    • Attempt to define what it means to be male or female

    • Failure → bisexual confusion

  • Leadership

    • Take on opportunities to lead

    • Failure → authority confusion

  • Ideological commitment

    • Need something to believe in

    • Failure → confusion of values

Marcia’s model on identity development

• May be applied to various aspects of identity 

• Diffusion 

  • No crisis & No commitment 

  • Individual has not yet thought about or resolved identity issues 

• Foreclosure

  • No crisis & Commitment made

  • Individual seems to know who self is but latched to identity prematurely

• Moratorium

  • Crisis experienced & No commitment 

  • Experiencing identity crisis, actively raising questions and seeking answers 

  • Experiencing identity crisis 

• Identity achievement 

  • Crisis experienced & Commitment made

  • Resolved identity crisis and made commitment to particular goals beliefs and value 

ethnic identity

Attitudes and behaviors tied to identifying with particular ethnic group

different ways ethnic minorities may adapt their cultural perspectives to that of the dominant culture

• Assimilation

  • Change within culture in dominant society 

  • Relinquishing of all ties connected to original culture 

  • Negative impact = self-esteem 

• Integration

  • Attempts to incorporate new culture into home culture

  • Most adaptive; better psych outcomes 

• Separation

  • Keeps both cultures exclusive from each other 

• Marginality 

  • No identification with either culture 

  • Least adaptive

sex and gender

• Biological sex

  • Physical characteristics making one male or female 

  • Relates to differences in sexual characteristics, muscle mass, etc. 

• Gender

  • Features society associates with or consider appropriate for men and women 

social learning theory perspective on gender-role development

• Differential reinforcement 

  • Rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviors 

  • Punished for behaviors considered appropriate for opposite sex 

• Observational learning

  • Children adopt attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models

Kohlberg viewpoint on moral development

• Pre-conventional mortality

  • Before 9

  • Obey rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards

  • Punishment and obedience 

    • Focused on avoiding punishment or being rewarded for rule following 

    • Goodness / badness of an act

    • Ex. Heinz bad for stealing drug since could go to jail if caught

  • Instrumental hedonism 

    • Conforms to rules to gain rewards or satisfy personal needs 

    • Some concern for others but mostly driven by own benefit 

    • Ex. Heinz should steal so his wife view him as hero

• Conventional mortality

  • Early adolescence 

  • Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval / maintain social order

  • Begin to view rules as relative when necessary, but prefer to follow them to maintain order

  • Good boy/girl

    • What is right is approved by others

    • Judged by intentions since other peoples feelings should be considered

    • Heinz should not steal since family would be embarrassed by thief 

  • Authority and Social Order 

    • Conforms to rules of legitimate authorities 

    • What is good for society to maintain social order

    • Heinz should not steal then everyone else may start stealing 

• Post-conventional mortality

  • Adolescence and beyond

  • Actions reflect self-defined ethical principles 

  • View rules as self-driven

  • Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, Law

    • Understanding rationale behind laws of society

    • Might challenge for democratic change in law compromising basic rights 

    • Heinz must steal since risk of death outweighs stealing being wrong 

Piaget viewpoint on moral development

• Morality of constraint →

  • Moral realism

  • Starting point 

  • Obedience = morality

• Morality of cooperation

  • Moral relativism 

  • Shift to understanding rules as changeable 

  • Social interaction + Cognitive abilities - Moral relativism

  • Not reached by all adults or adolescents 

factors that affect prosocial and moral behavior

• Prosocial behavior= actions that benefit, help, or bolster others

  • Influenced by perspective taking, empathy, personality, schooling, peers, culture 

    • Personality influenced by disorders 

    • Schooling = where one learns to support peers 

    • Peers= level of support and rolemodeling 

• Age and Prosocial behavior 

  • Increase willingness share and level of empathy with age

  • Tendency to offer comfort or actually help tens to remain constant over time

• Strong moral identity → More likely to behave prosocially 

role parents play in developing morality in adolescents

• Warmth and trust 

  • Enhanced dependence lead to strong conscious 

• Discipline

  • Consistent, clear, just, and democratic 

  • More = better moral identity 

  • Major way for enforcement

different types of discipline and the effect on the adolescent moral development

• Love Withdrawal

  • Withhold attention, affection, or approval

  • May create anxiety since loss of affection from parent 

  • Ex. “I don’t like you right now”

• Power Assertion

  • Use power to threaten, chastise, administer spanking

  • Children become less compliant, develop resentment, start to comply when threats become harsher 

• Induction 

  • Ideal method

  • Explain why behavior is wrong and should be changed and emphasize impact on others

  • Positively associated with moral maturity and empathy 

How do peers, mass media, and religion play a role in adolescent moral development

• Peers

  • Peer pressure

  • Structuring opportunities

  • modeling

• Religions

  • Moral code

  • Level 

• Mass media

  • Violence 

    • Over exposure in games correlated with lack of empathy 

  • Sexual content 

three components of parenting adolescents

• Connection

  • Presence of warm, stable, loving bond between parent and child

  • Builds sense of security 

  • Ways to build a strong connection 

    • Quality time

      • Availability 

    • Empathy 

      • Sensitivity to child role models empathy 

    • Support 

      • Physical and emotional 

    • Showing interest 

      • Demonstrates care

  • Factors that impact connection 

    • Number of children

    • Birth order

    • Sex of child 

  • Why parents may not trust the adolescent 

    • Based on knowledge of their adolescent 

      • May grow concerned if missing information 

    • Projection of fears and anxieties 

      • Insecurities or misbehaving in upbringing of parent may lead to distrust 

  • Ability to build connection impacted by 

    • Family cohesion 

      • How close family is to one another 

    • Choosing peers over parents

    • Acceptance of child as they are 

• Psychological Autonomy

  • Freedom to form own opinions, have privacy, and make own decisions 

  • Molding autonomy

    • Autonomy 

      • Independence or freedom

      • Establish individuality 

    • Separation-individuation 

      • Process of transforming bond between parent-child

      • Ways in which the adolescent can engage in independence building experiences 

    • Growing the ability to make decisions on own

  • Aspects of autonomy 

    • Behavioral

      • Free will to act on own

      • Ex. choice in clothing, friends, music

    • Emotional 

      • Ability to regulate own emotions

      • Shift depends on parental behavior 

  • Increase in Autonomy → Increase in Conflict 

    • Direct influence 

      • Social life

        • ex. Curfews

      • Family relationships

      • Academic performance 

      • Social conventions 

        • Norms varying per generational gap 

      • Personal responsibilities 

    • Outside indirect influences 

      • SES

        • Low SES focus on obedience 

        • High SES focus on independence 

      • Stressors 

        • Stress related factors that parents experience 

      • Culture

        • Norms and values internalized in how parent and child should interact 

        • ex. Discipline 

  • Complementary link between Connection and Autonomy 

    • ← Enmeshed family

      • Members are too heavily connected to one another 

      • Too difficult to build independence within adolescent 

    • → Disengaged family

      • Members are isolated from one another 

      • Too much independence

    • Ideally family is balanced between independence and emotional support 

• Regulation 

  • Parental monitoring, supervision, and rule setting

  • Dependent on parental 

    • Control 

      • Management of behavior 

    • Warmth 

      • Love, approval, support provided 

different parenting styles and the effects of using each on the development of the adolescent

• Authoritative 

  • High warmth 

  • High control, not excessive 

  • Reasonable demands, consistently enforced with sensitivity 

  • Accepts child

  • More positive outcomes related to self-esteem, social acceptance, morality 

• Authoritarian  

  • Low warmth, cold

  • High control, excessive level

  • Strict disciplinarians with many rules and demands 

  • Few explanations with little sensitivity to child’s needs and perceptions

  • More negative outcomes related to personality (moody), very compliant, and lacks motivation 

• Permissive

  • High warmth 

  • Low control, undemanding 

  • Overindulgent with few rules and demands 

  • Children are allowed much more freedom by parents 

  • Some negative outcomes such as impulsive, self-centered, and rebellious 

• Uninvolved/Neglectful  

  • Low warmth, cold

  • Low control, undemanding 

  • Worst style 

  • Few rules and demands 

  • Parents insensitive to child’s needs

  • Negative outcomes such as behavioral problems, hostile, and antisocial 

different factors that lead to conflict between parents and adolescents

• Sex of child 

• SES

• Time 

multiple ways in which siblings influence each other

• Emotional support 

  • Someone to confide in

  • Protect and comfort

• Caregiving 

  • Babsyit 

  • Tend to younger children

• Teachers

  • Feel responsibility to teach young siblings 

  • Seek guidance 

• Social experience 

  • Someone to interact with 

  • Learn perspective taking 

what influences the involvement of grandparents

• Parent relationship

• Location

• Health and age 

emotional reaction adolescents may have towards experiencing divorce in their family

• Shock

• Fear and anxiety 

• Anger and hostility 

• Guilt 

• Mourning and grief 

long-term effects of divorce

• Views on marriage 

  • More likely to cohabitate over getting married 

• Academics 

  • Lower level of academic achievement 

• Sibling relationships 

  • Conflict especially if lacking support 

factors contribute to increasing the negative effects of divorce

• Personal characteristics 

  • Age

  • Adaptability

  • Coping skills

  • Self-esteem 

• Pre vs Post Divorce 

  • Economics 

    • 2 incomes vs 1 income household 

  • Parent conflict 

  • Distress 

• Relocation 

  • → Strained relationships

    • See one parent less than before 

      • Usually father 

    • Less time with extended family of noncustodial parent

    • Can also impact peer relationships

different types of custodial agreements

• Legal custody 

  • Parent has the right to make important decisions about the child’s life

• Residential custody 

  • Where and with which parent the child lives with 

• Joint custody 

  • Both parents share decision-making privileges 

different parental arrangements that may occur for single-parent mothers

• Typical structure 

  • Low-income

  • Female-led

  • High-school degree

  • Came single parent household self 

risk factors associated with being raised in a single-parent household

• Based on comparison to those raised in two-parent household

• Risk factors 

  • Emotional problems 

  • Teenage pregnancy 

  • Poor academics 

    • Low level of parental involvement →

    • Poor academic achievement →

    • Limited occupational opportunities →

    • Low income 

  • Delinquency 

family cohesion and how is it affected by divorce and remarriage

How close family is to one another

• new people or loss of connection with parent can potentially worsen cohesion

difference between formal and informal peer contexts

• Formal systems 

  • Groups determined by school structure 

  • ex. Academic subsystem

  • Grade level, extracurriculars 

• Informal systems can determine groups

  • Adolescent themselves determine groups 

  • Friendship systems based on reputation 

  • ex. Cliques, loners, liaisons, crowds

bullying and describe its effect on the adolescent

• Unprovoked aggressive behavior intended to hurt another

• Perceived power difference 

• Typical victims

  • Insecure, quiet shy

  • Few friends

  • Considered weak

• Effects

  • Short-term: avoid school, lose friends

  • Long-term: depression, suicidality 

• Rise of cyber-bullying 

  • Sending derogatory or threatening messages

  • Spreading rumors

  • Sending embarrassing or pornagraphic material

  • Posting pictures or stories ridiculing a person 

• Distinction 

  • Cyberbullying 

    • Often anonymous 

    • Often very vicious 

    • Can strike at any place and any time

    • Huge potential audience 

    • Can be long-lasting and enduring 

    • More frequent retaliation by victim 

  • Traditional bullying 

    • Occasionally anonymous 

    • Usually more moderately vicious 

    • Usually at school

    • Smaller audience 

    • Usually fewer, more discrete incident 

    • Usually no retaliation by victim 

how to develop a success intervention for reducing bullying in schools

• Time 

  • Understand that will likely not be immediate solution 

• Active student involvement 

• Parental involvement 

• Teacher participation

• Motivations for bullying 

  • Helpful to understand why to curb continuation 

• School wide policy 

differences between friendships in childhood and in adolescence

• Childhood

  • Playmate

  • Shallow

  • Little dependence

• Adolescence 

  • Emotional

  • Dependence

  • Volatile 

difference between peer acceptance based on research and according to adolescents

• Psychologist Approach 

  • Sociometric technique to determine category of each student 

  • Students rate each other on who they like and do not

  • Categories 

    • Popular

      • Well liked, rarely disliked 

    • Rejected

      • Rarely liked

      • Often disliked 

    • Neglected

      • Neither liked nor disliked 

      • Invisible to classmates

    • Controversial

      • Liked by many

      • Disliked by many

      • ex. Class clown

    • Average

      • In middle of scales

• Popularity according to adolescents 

  • Perceived popularity

    • High status students 

    • Socially dominant leaders

  • May or may not be liked at all

    • Social center of school

    • May be viewed as stuck up or mean

  • Use relational and reputational aggression 

    • To maintain high social status, may use friends or hurt other 

popularity and how is it determined

• Becoming socially accepted 

  • Conformity

    • Adolescent friendships based on similarity 

    • May seek new friend if views differ

  • Achievement

    • Successful in sports or academics 

    • Recognition and praise makes one more variable

    • What is valued depends on climate of school

  • Physical attractiveness

    • Value having good looks 

    • Guilty from teachers too 

  • Deviance 

    • Acceptable to group which deviates from norms 

    • Often aggression acceptable in gangs 

varying reasons adolescents date

• Recreation 

• Companionship

• Status

• Socialization

  • Can build social growth 

• Sexual experimentation 

• Intimacy 

• Partner selection 

  • Helps to understand long-term understanding of who want to be with 

Brown’s phases of romantic relationships

• Initiation 

  • Early adolescence

  • Focus on self

  • Time of crushes

• Status 

  • Mid-adolescence

  • Peer approval

  • Right kind of partner

• Affection

  • Late adolescence 

  • Focus on relationship iself

  • More personal and caring

• Bonding 

  • Early adulthood

  • Emotional intimacy

  • Long-term commitment