cognitive psych & learning

Decision making

Attempting to select the best alternative among several options.

Bounded rationality

The idea that in decision-making, rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their mind, and the finite amount of time they have to make a decision.

Heuristic

Shortcut used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions.

Availability heuristic

Tendency to make a decision based on information that comes most easily to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Tendency to place people or objects in a category if they are similar to the concept that is the prototype, which can lead to faulty reasoning if the base rate is not taken into account.

Bias

Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgement.

Framing

How information is presented affects how that information is perceived and influences decisions.

The paradox of choice

When too many options are available, we experience conflict, indecision, and a form of cognitive paralysis.

Maximizers vs. Satisfiers

Maximizers seek the best choice, while satisfiers accept 'good enough' choices.

Memory

Learning that has been kept over time, information which has been stored and can be recalled.

Types of memory

Explicit and implicit memory.

Stages of memory

Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Processes of memory

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Memorization

The process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Encoding

Processing of information to allow its storage.

Filter theory

Explains how we selectively attend to the most important information.

Change blindness

Failure to identify significant visual changes in the environment.

Selective attention

The process that allows the filtering of unwanted information.

Storage

Retention of encoded representations over time.

Sensory memory

Memory that lasts less than 1 second for iconic memory and 4-5 seconds for echoic memory.

Short-term memory

Memory that lasts up to 30 seconds without rehearsal.

Digit-span test

Assesses attention and short-term memory; recalling 7 units corresponds to average short-term memory.

Magic number 7

The typical memory capacity of 7 units.

Working memory

Processing system that maintains information in short-term storage by actively manipulating it.

Chunking

Using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to facilitate retrieval.

Long-term memory

Memory that can last a long time, with essentially unlimited capacity.

Maintenance rehearsal

Shallow encoding by using working-memory processes to repeat auditory information.

Elaborative rehearsal

In-depth encoding by using working-memory processes to relate new information to prior knowledge.

Consolidation of memories

Process through which immediate memories turn into enduring memories.

Retrieval

Act of recalling or remembering information that has been stored when needed.

Retrieval cue

Facilitates the recovering of information stored in long-term storage.

Encoding specificity principle

Cues present during encoding will facilitate the access to memories when present during retrieval.

Context-dependent memory

Memory retrieval that is facilitated by congruence between the encoding and retrieval environment.

State-dependent memory

Memory retrieval that is facilitated by congruence between physiological states during encoding and retrieval.

Mood-dependent memory effects

Easier retrieval of memories when in the same mood during encoding and retrieval.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that require elaborative rehearsal.

Method of loci

A memory aid that associates sequential pieces of information with sequential locations.

Forgetting

Inability to access a memory from long-term storage.

Interference

When older or newer memories prevent access to other memories.

Blocking

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon caused by interference from similar words.

Absentmindedness

Inattentive or shallow encoding of events.

Distortion

Inaccurate representation of the past.

Flashbulb memories

Vivid memories of the circumstances when encoding of an emotionally intense event occurred.

Misattribution

Misremembering aspects related to a memory.

Suggestibility

When misleading information affects memory for an event.

False memories

Confusion between real/experienced and imagined memory.

Persistence

Continual recurrence of unwanted memories from long-term storage.

Learning

The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Non-associative learning

Learning information about an external stimulus.

Associative learning

Learning that involves forming associations among stimuli and/or responses.

Habituation

Decreased response to a stimulus after lengthy or repeated exposure.

Sensitization

Increased response to a stimulus after lengthy or repeated exposure.

Behaviorism

Focus on observable behaviors as opposed to unobservable internal mental processes.

Classical conditioning

A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Stimulus that reliably triggers a response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

Process of acquiring a new response in classical conditioning.

Extinction

Disappearance of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which behavior is strengthened by reinforcers or diminished by punishers.

Law of Effect

Principle stating the probability of a response is altered by the effect it has.

Positive reinforcement

Strengthening a response by presenting a rewarding stimulus after a desired event.

Negative reinforcement

Strengthening a response by removing an unpleasant stimulus after a desired event.

Primary reinforcers

Innately reinforcing stimuli that satisfy a biological need.

Secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that gain their reinforcing power via association with primary reinforcers.

Continuous reinforcement

The desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not reinforced.

Positive punishment

Decreases responses by presenting an aversive stimulus after an undesired event.

Negative punishment

Decreases the response by removing a desirable stimulus after an undesired event.

Observational learning

Acquisition or modification of behavior after exposure to the behavior's performance.

Modeling

Imitation of behavior through observational learning.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished.

explicit memory

intentional remembering of information (ex: friends birthday, capital of France)

implicit memory

automatic recall of information (how to drive, ride a bike, etc.)

episodic memory

(explicit) personal experiences

semantic memory

(explicit) stores facts

classical conditioning (implicit)

implicit memory that influences behavior without conscious effort

priming

(implicit) influences behavior without conscious effort

sensory memory

(implicit) encodes and stores raw sensory data

precedural

(implicit) perform actions (ex: ride a bike)

primacy effect

remember first few items of a list when not rehearsed

recency effect

remember last few items of a list when not rehearsed

serial position effect

remember both first few and last few items of a list when not rehearsed

decay effect

memories fade over time