PSYCH UNIT 2B - VOCAB

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category.

Schema

A framework that organizes and interprets stored information.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into pre-existing mental schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to fit newly encountered information.

Executive Functions

Higher-level cognitive processes controlling goal-directed behaviors.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a correct solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used for fast problem-solving.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating frequency based on how easily memories pop up.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems using past methods.

Priming

Implicit activation of specific associations in memory.

Framing

How an issue is presented affects decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Believing past independent events influence future random outcomes.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing an endeavor due to previously invested resources.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding options by generating many unique solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down options to find a single best answer.

Explicit Memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of facts and personal experiences.

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced past events.

Semantic Memory

Memory for general knowledge, facts, and concepts.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory that influences behavior without awareness.

Procedural Memory

Implicit memory for motor skills and habits.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform an intended action later.

Long-Term Potentiation

Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent activity.

Working Memory

Active manipulation and temporary storage of information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Working memory component handling visual and spatial data.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent, unlimited storehouse of the memory system.

Multi-Store Model

Memory model involving sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.

Central Executive

Working memory component directing attention and coordinating subsystems.

Phonological Loop

Working memory component processing auditory and verbal information.

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on basic surface or structural features.

Deep Processing

Encoding semantically based on meaning and associations.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious, effortless encoding of incidental information.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious attention and active focus.

Encoding

Processing information into the memory system.

Storing

Retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing and recovering stored information from memory.

Structural Processing

Encoding physical appearance or visual traits of information.

Phonemic Processing

Encoding sound patterns and pronunciation of words.

Semantic Processing

Encoding deep meaning and relationships of information.

Encode

Convert information into a usable memory format.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using vivid imagery or organizational tricks.

Method of Loci

Associating items with specific physical places to recall.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

Categories

Networks grouping concepts with shared features together.

Hierarchies

Multi-level structures organizing concepts from broad to specific.

The Spacing Effect

Distributed study yields better long-term retention than cramming.

Massed Practice

Cramming study material into one long continuous session.

Distributed Practice

Spacing study sessions out over extended time intervals.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list.

Short-Term Memory

Temporarily holds a few items before storage or decay.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetitive review of information to keep it active.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge for retention.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall memories formed before brain injury.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory system reflecting personal life experiences and history.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term explicit memories.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing severe memory loss.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability of adults to retrieve early childhood memories.

Recall

Retrieving stored information without external cues present.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented again.

Retrieval Cues

External stimuli assisting recovery of stored memories.

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when retrieval environment matches encoding environment.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall matching your current positive or negative mood.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall enhanced when physical state matches encoding state.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory retention following repeated self-testing.

Metacognition

Thinking about and understanding one's own thought processes.

The Forgetting Curve

Hypothesized decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding Failure

Inability to recall information because it was never stored.

Proactive Interference

Old memories disrupt the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

New memories disrupt the recall of old information.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Temporary inability to retrieve a known word from memory.

Ego

The realistic psychological part mediating reality and instinct.

Repression

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism banishing anxious thoughts from consciousness.

Misinformation Effect

Misleading post-event information distorting memory of an event.

Source Amnesia

Faulty memory for how or where information was learned.

Constructive Memory

Rebuilding memories using past experiences and current expectations.

Memory Consolidation

Process stabilizing a memory trace after initial learning.

Imagination Inflation

Imagining nonexistent events makes them feel like real memories.

Intelligence

Capacity to learn, solve problems, and adapt to situations.

General Intelligence

Underlying general mental ability factor driving specific cognitive skills.

Multiple Intelligences

Theory proposing distinct, independent types of human capabilities.

Intelligence Quotient

Numerical measure assessing human cognitive ability against peers.

Mental Age

Measure of intelligence expressed as a specific age level.

Standardization

Establishing uniform testing conditions and norms using test groups.

Valid

Measuring or predicting accurately what a test claims to.

Construct Validity

Degree to which a test measures intended theoretical traits.

Predictive Validity

Success with which a test predicts future target performance.

Reliable

Yielding consistent and stable results across repeated testings.

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of scores when re-taking the same test.

Split-Half Reliability

Consistency when comparing two halves of a single test.

Stereotype Threat

Performance anxiety triggered by fear of confirming negative stereotypes.

Stereotype Lift

Performance boost triggered by exposure to favorable group stereotypes.

Flynn Effect

Sustained worldwide rise in intelligence test scores over time.