EXAM 2 - MITOSIS/MEIOSIS, PROTEIN, DNA, MALE/FEMALE REPRODUCTION, BIRTH/DELIVERY

Seminal vesicles

Male accessory glands that secrete a thick, viscous seminal fluid containing fructose (fuel/food for sperm), clotting factors, and alkaline factors that activate the flagellum.

Prostate Gland

A male accessory gland running under the urinary bladder that surrounds the urethra and secretes activating factors for sperm; it is not essential and can be removed.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

An enlarged noncancerous prostate condition more common than prostate cancer that kinks the urethra, causing urine to dribble and pushing on the bladder.

Polyuria

An increase in the need to pee, caused by an enlarged prostate pushing on the bladder.

Nocturia

The condition of needing to get up multiple times during the night to pee, which takes a long time.

PSA test

A screening test for prostate cancer recommended to start at age $45/50$.

Bulbourethral Glands

Accessory glands that line the urethra and secrete alkaline mucus prior to ejaculation to coat the urethra and glans penis.

Penis

The male copulatory organ composed of three parts: root, shaft/body, and glans penis.

Erectile tissue

Tissue of the penis consisting of three parts—the corpora spongiosum and two corpora cavernosa—that causes an erection when filled with blood.

Circumcision

The surgical removal of the foreskin covering the glans penis, which provides the benefit of a decrease in infection.

Erectile Dysfunction (Impotence)

The inability to achieve or maintain an erection.

Hypertrophy

Cellular enlargement occurring in muscle cells or adipocytes as a response to stress on the muscles.

Atrophy

Cellular shrinkage occurring in muscle cells due to aging or disuse, such as when an extremity is immobilized in a cast.

Spermatogenesis

The ongoing process of sperm production that occurs in the testes until death, with an optimum temperature of $95\,^\circ\text{F}$.

Testosterone

A hormone produced by the testes that drives hair growth, muscle and bone growth, increased red blood cell (RBC) synthesis, and aggressive behavior.

Vasectomy

A surgical procedure where the vas deferens is cut, cauterized, and stapled to prevent sperm from exiting the testes; it is reversible and approximately $99\%$ effective.

Cryptorchidism

A condition in which one or both testes are missing or hidden in the pelvic cavity, resulting in increased temperature and potential infertility.

Orcheoplexy

A surgical procedure used to bring hidden or missing testes down from the pelvic cavity and place them into the scrotum.

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

A hormone released by the hypothalamus in the brain around $10\text{ yrs}$ of age that stimulates the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary gland.

Cervix

The lowest-most region of the uterus that connects directly to the vagina.

Cervical Dilation

The widening of the cervix during labor, which must reach $10\,\text{cm}$ for the infant's head to pass through for vaginal delivery.

Parametrium

The outermost layer of the uterus composed of elastic connective tissue that allows the organ to stretch significantly without sustaining damage.

Myometrium

The middle layer of the uterus made of involuntary smooth muscle that contracts in response to oxytocin.

Endometrium

The innermost, highly vascular lining of the uterus made of simple columnar epithelium, consisting of the basal and functional sublayers.

Basal Layer

The highly mitotic base sublayer of the endometrium that rests directly on the myometrium and continuously gives rise to the functional layer.

Functional Layer

The endometrial sublayer responsive to estrogen and progesterone that thickens each cycle, sheds during menses, or develops into the placenta during pregnancy.

Placenta

A sizable vascular organ that develops from the heavily thickened functional layer when estrogen and progesterone levels remain elevated during pregnancy.

Episiotomy

A surgical incision made into the vaginal wall by an obstetrician to widen the opening for a baby's head or shoulders and prevent irregular tissue tearing.

Tubal Pregnancy

The most common form of ectopic pregnancy, occurring when the blastocyst implants and develops within the fallopian tube rather than the uterus.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

A hormone secreted by the implanting blastocyst that signals the ovaries to elevate estrogen and progesterone; it is detected by at-home urine pregnancy tests.

Folate (Vitamin B9)

An essential nutritional factor obtained from vegetables such as broccoli, collard greens, and brussels sprouts that prevents fetal neural tube defects.

Foramen Ovale

An opening between the right and left atria in the fetal heart that acts as a bypass to redirect blood away from the non-functional lungs.

Atrial Septal Defect

A congenital condition where the opening between the right and left atria is abnormally large and fails to close properly, leading to inadequate blood oxygenation and cyanosis.

Umbilical Vein

The fetal blood vessel responsible for transporting oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the developing fetus.

Umbilical Arteries

Fetal blood vessels that return deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the placenta to be expelled by maternal circulation.

Expulsion Stage

The second stage of labor involving maternal pushing, crowning of the head, and the passage of the baby through the birth canal.

Placental Stage

The third stage of labor in which the placenta is detached and delivered to prevent maternal infection or sepsis.

Pitocin

A synthetic formulation of oxytocin administered after delivery to stimulate uterine contractions, restore uterine size, and minimize maternal blood loss.

Colostrum

The yellowish, butter-like initial breast milk that is packed with maternal antibodies and provides a mild laxative effect to help the infant pass meconium.

Meconium

The dark, tarry first bowel movements passed by a newborn consisting of material accumulated in the digestive tract during gestation.

Prolactin

The hormone responsible for stimulating milk production within the lactiferous glands.

Oxytocin

The hormone that drives uterine smooth muscle contractions during labor and triggers the letdown reflex to secrete breast milk from lactiferous glands.

BPH (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia)

An enlarged, noncancerous prostate caused by an increase in the number of normal cells, which compresses the urethra and bladder, resulting in slow urine flow and increased urination frequency.

Polyuria

A condition characterized by an increased frequency of urination, causing a person to go to the bathroom very often.

Nocturia

Frequent urination occurring during the night, often requiring an individual to wake up multiple times to empty their bladder.

Prostatectomy

The surgical removal of the prostate gland.

da Vinci Surgery

A robotic surgical method in which a surgeon operates from a console with high magnification to control robotic arms, reducing the risk of damaging underlying nerves such as the pudendal nerve.

PSA Test

A blood screening test used to detect prostate cancer.

Bulbourethral Glands

A pair of small male accessory glands that secrete an alkaline mucus prior to ejaculation to neutralize acidic residue from urine and coat the urethra.

Erectile Tissue

Vascular tissue within the penis composed of three parts—two corpora cavernosa and one corpus spongiosum—that fills with blood to produce an erection.

Impotence

The inability to obtain or maintain an erection.

Circumcision

The surgical removal of the foreskin that covers the glans penis.

Balanitis

Inflammation of the foreskin and head of the penis, which can develop when regular hygiene is not maintained under the foreskin.

Gynecology

The medical specialty dedicated to the health and concerns of the female reproductive system.

Obstetrician

A medical specialist who provides care during pregnancy and delivers newborns to ensure a successful pregnancy.

Oogenesis

The biological process of producing eggs or ova within the ovaries.

Ovulation

The release of a secondary oocyte from the ovary into the fallopian tube.

Menopause

The physiological cessation of ovulation that typically occurs around age $50$.

Corpus Luteum

A large glandular structure formed in the ovary after ovulation that secretes estrogen and progesterone.

Primordial Follicle

A cluster of ovarian cells present from birth containing a primary oocyte with $46$ chromosomes.

Secondary Oocyte

The cell produced through meiotic division containing $23$ chromosomes that is released from the ovary during ovulation.

GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone)

A hormone produced in the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

LH Surge

A mid-cycle spike in luteinizing hormone levels that triggers ovulation.

Endometrium

The inner mucosal lining of the uterus that thickens and increases in vascularity to support and sustain an implanted embryo.

Tubal Ligation

A surgical sterilization procedure in which the fallopian tubes are tied, cauterized, or stapled to prevent pregnancy.

Fimbriae

Finger-like projections located at the end of the fallopian tube that sweep over the ovary to capture the ovulated egg.

Ectopic Pregnancy

A pregnancy that implants outside the uterus, such as a rare pelvic pregnancy where the fertilized egg attaches to the peritoneal abdominal wall.

Hysterectomy

The surgical removal of the uterus.

Unexplained weight loss

A potential symptom of cancer characterized by dropping $10$ or more pounds without changes in diet or exercise.

Keratin

A hardening, protein-based substance found in structures such as nails.

Gene

The genetic code required by a cell to make a protein, serving as a blueprint for protein synthesis.

Essential amino acids

Amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and therefore must be consumed in the diet.

Nonessential amino acids

Amino acids that do not need to be consumed in the diet because the body, such as the liver, can synthesize them.

Transcription

The first step of protein synthesis, occurring in the nucleus, in which a DNA gene is read and copied onto messenger RNA (mRNA).

Translation

The step in protein synthesis where messenger RNA is read with transfer RNA (tRNA) to assemble amino acids into a protein chain.

Codon

A three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid, a start signal, or a stop signal.

AUG

The start codon that signals the ribosome to begin protein synthesis.

UAA

A stop codon that signals the termination of the amino acid sequence during protein synthesis.

PKU (Phenylketonuria)

A metabolic disorder caused by the lack of an enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine, resulting in acid accumulation that destroys brain neurons if not detected and managed with a specialized diet.

Hypertrophy

An increase in cell size without undergoing mitosis, commonly occurring in muscle cells in response to physical stress or growth hormone.

Atrophy

The shrinking of cells from large to small, representing the opposite of hypertrophy and commonly seen in underused muscles.

Testes

The paired male reproductive organs responsible for producing sperm and secreting testosterone.

Epididymis

A sack-like structure located on top of each testis where sperm are stored.

Vas deferens (Ductus deferens)

The long tubular structure that transports sperm and semen from the epididymis toward the ejaculatory duct and urethra.

Vasectomy

A male sterilization procedure in which the vas deferens is cut on both sides, cauterized to form scar tissue, and stapled to block sperm from leaving the body.

Tubal ligation

The female equivalent of a vasectomy, involving cutting and tying off the fallopian tubes to prevent fertilization.

Scrotum

The pouch of skin that houses the testes and maintains their temperature at approximately $95\text{ degrees Fahrenheit}$ ($95^\circ\text{F}$) to ensure fertility.

Orchiopexy

A surgical procedure performed to move undescended or hidden testes from the pelvic cavity down into the scrotum.

Spermatogonia

Cells residing in the seminiferous tubules throughout a male's lifetime that contain $46$ chromosomes and undergo meiosis to produce sperm.

Meiosis

The cell division process that reduces the chromosome number in germ cells from $46$ chromosomes in spermatogonia to $23$ chromosomes in mature sperm cells.

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

An anterior pituitary hormone stimulated by GnRH that targets interstitial cells in the testes.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

An anterior pituitary hormone stimulated by GnRH that targets sustentacular cells in the testes to secrete androgen-binding proteins.

Acrosome

The cap located on the head of a sperm cell that contains digestive enzymes required to penetrate the membrane of an egg during fertilization.

Midpiece

The central section of a sperm cell that contains numerous mitochondria to provide energy for movement.