Psyc of Sexuality Exam One

Sex vs. Gender

Sex:

• Anatomical Features (male, female, intersex)

• Physcial Activities

Gender

• Social or cultural categories

Human Sexuality

• Refers to ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings (reflect combination of biological, psychological, and social factors interacting)

• Study of human sexuality reflects on biological capabilities, psychological traits and experiences, and social and cultural influences (multi-disciplinary)

Legalism (Value System)

Ethical behavior derived from an external source (example: the Bible)

Situatioinal Ethics (Value System)

Ethical decision making should be guided by the situation and by genuine love for other

Hedonism (Value System)

Pursuit of pleasure is the guide

Relativisim (Value System)

There is no objective way of justifying one set of moral values over another

Asceticism (Value System)

One denies sexual desires to devote oneself to spiritual pursuits

Utilitarinaism (Value System)

Moral conduct brings about the greatest good for the greatest number

Rationalism (Value System)

Sexual decisions should be based on intellect and reason, not blind obedience

Prehistoric Sexuality

• Historians and anthropologists infer prehistoric sex-related division of labor

• Stone Age art suggests worship of women’s ability to bear children

• Phallic worship became common as awareness of the male role in reproduction grew (phallic symbols play a role in religious ceremonies and are made into jewelry)

• Incest taboo may have been the first human taboo

The Ancient Hebrews

• Viewed sex (in marriage) as a satisfying experience

• Intended to fulfill divine command to “be fruitful and multiply”

• Same-sex sexual behavior strongly condemned

• Book of Proverbs: A good wife rises before dawn to tend to familial needs

• Wife considered property of husband; may have shared husband with other wives; could be divorced on a whim

• Women who committed adultrery could be stoned to death

The Ancient Greeks

• Valued family life

• Men admired well-developed male body (males viewed as bisexual)

• Pederasty was illegal, but families generally pleased if adolescent sons attracted socially prominent mentors

• Sex work at every level, from courtesans to concubines

• Women subject to authority of husbands or male next-of-kin —> Husband could divorce without cause (obligated if the wife committed adultery)

Ancient Rome

• Reported sexual excesses of Roman emperors and ruling families (orgies in which guests practiced bestiality and sadism)

• Romans disapproved of male-male sexual behavior

• Women considered property of husband

Fellatio

Derives from Latin fellare, “to suck”

Cunnilingus

Derives from Latin cunnus, “vulva”

Fornication

Derives from Latin fornix, an arch or vault (where sex would take place)

Christianity

• Associated sexuality with sin (sought to restrict sex to marriage; temptations of the flesh distract from spiritual devotion; sex was for procreation not pleasure; only through celibacy could men and women achieve state of grace)

• Paul preached celibacy but marriage over “passion”

• Demanded virginity of brides —> Men should love wives with restraint, not passion —> Divorce outlawed

• Sex work condemned

• Behaviors viewed as abominations: Masturbation, male-male sex, female-female sex, oral-genital contact, anal intercourse

• Two conflicting concepts of women: Women as Eve (temptress) or women as Mary (Mother of God, virtuous and pure)

• Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther believed priests should be allowed to marry and rear children (marriage as much human nature as eating); Stressed ideal of family life, sex outside of marriage immoral

Islam

• Values marriage and sexual fulfillment in marriage (Muhammad decreed marriage represents road to virtue)

• Premarital sex and adultery invite shame and social condemnation

• Sexual double standard: Men may take up to four wives, women permitted only one husband

• Women expected to keep heads and faces veiled in public + to avoid all contact with men other than their husbands (social interactions between men and women restricted in conservative Islamic societies)

Hinduism

• Sexual pleasure as a spiritual ideal (sculptures show gods, nymphs, and people in erotic poses)

• Hindu sexual practices codified in the Kama Sutra (reflected belief sex was a religious duty)

• Deities often portrayed engaging in same-sex as well as male-female sexual activities

• Sexual fulfilment seen as one way to become reincarnated at a higher level

• Indian society grew more restrictive after abour 1000 CE

Taoism

• Sexuality akin to spirituality

• For taoiust masters, sex was a sacred duty (form of worship which led toward harmony with nature and immortality)

• In ancient China, men expected to extend intercouse (bring partner to orgasm) to absorb wife’s yin which would enhance his own essence, yang

• Masturbation: Acceptable for women, not men (wasteful for men to “spill his seed”)

• Same-sex activity not prohibited (some Taoists frowned on exclusive homosexuality)

• Wives were limited to domestic roles

The Victorian Period

• Synonymous with sexual repression

• Women viewed sex as a marital duty; Women assumed not to experience sexual desire or pleasure

• Sex work flourished

• Same-sex behavior considered indecent

Beginning of the Scientific Study of Sexuality

• Scientists and scholars began to approach sexuality as an area for study

• Havelock Ellis: published Studies in the Psychology of Sex —> Argued sexual desire in women natural and healthy; Believed gay and lesbian orientations inborn, natural variations; Wrote sexual problems had psychological causes

• Richard von Krafft-Ebing: published Psychopathia Sexualis —> Described case histories of people with sexual deviations (viewed them as mental diseases, possible to study and treat)

• Alfred Kinsey: Conducted first large-scale studies of sexual behavior (conducted detailed interviews with nearly 12,000 people); Kinsey’s work published in two volumes; Most criticism branded it obscene but Kinsey’s work helped make sex research a respectable field of study

The Sexual Revolution

• Period of mid-1960s to mid 1970s

• Dramatic changes in attitudes toward sex

• Censorship crumbled and films became sexually explicit

• Sexual revolution tied to social permissiveness and political liberalism

• William Master and Virginia Johnson observed people engaging in sexual activity in a lab —> Condemned as destroying moral fabric of nation

Recent Trends

• More teenagers are sexually active than previous generations

• Permanent features of sexual revolution: Liberation of female sexuality and Willingness to discuss sex openly

• Countless pornography websites on the internet (frequently accessed by children, inadvertently)

The Biological Perspective (on sexuality)

• Focuses on the role of hormones, nervous system, sex organs, genetics, etc.

• Sex serves biological function of reproduction

• Genes lead to development of male, female, and intersex anatomy and physiology

• DNA —> (46) Chromosomes —> Genes

The Evolutionary Perspective (on sexuality)

• Evolution explains variability in mating behavior

• Better-adapted members pass along genes (Natural selection may have led to mating strategies)

• New variation through random genetic changes —> mutations

• May be genetic basis to certain social behaviors (Some argue men more naturally promiscuous, Females more selective as they can only bear so many children)

13 Basic Reasons for Having Sex:

• Physical: Stress reduction, pleasure, physical desirability, experience seeking

• Goal attainment: Resources, social status, revenge, utilitatian

• Emotional: Love and commitment, expression

• Insecurity: Self-esteem boost, duty/pressure, mate guarding

The Cross-Species Perspective (on sexuality)

• To determine what’s “natural,” look at other species

• Surprising variety of sexxual behaviors exist among nonhumans (male-male, female-female, oral-genital, oral-oral, foreplay)

• Most mammals use only rear-mounting position

Sociological Perspective (on sexuality)

• Study influences of groups on sexual behavior (socioeconomic status, level of educaiton, sex, race/ethinicity, age)

• Socities differ in attitudes toward masturbation

• All human societies share anatomic structures and capabilities for sexual pleasure

Psychological Perspective (on sexuality)

• Focused on psychological influences toward sex (perception, motivation, learning, emotional, personality)

• Freud focused on motivational role of sex in personality (Psychoanalytic theory)

• Others focus on how experiences and mental representations of the world affect sexual behavior

Learning Theories (on sexuality)

• Emphasized importance of rewards and punishments in learning process

• Children exploring bodies without parental condemnation will learn what feels good and repeat it

• Child in sexually restrictive culture may be placed in conflict (masturbation feels good, brings shame)

• With social-cognititive theory, children acquire gender roles deemed appropriate for their anatomical sex

Cognitive Theories (on sexuality)

• Emphasize importance of cognitive activity

• Recognize beliefs and attitudes taught to children can serve as cognitive anchors for a lifetime

Feminist Theory (on sexuality)

• Focuses on the subordanitation of women to men

• Analyzes the relationships among sexism, heterosexism, racism, and class oppression

• Challenges: Traditional views of men as breadwinners and women as homemakers; Traditional views of men as political policymakers; Views of men as sexual “aggressors” and women as “gatekeepers”; Traditional gender roles viewing men as objective and rational and women as emotional and irrational; Concepts of feminity and masculinity

• Feminists assert men have no right to control women’s bodies

• Many traditions that subjugate women are falling by the wayside (at least in developed nations)

Queer Theory (on sexuality)

• Challenges heteronormativity —> Assumption that heterosexuality is normal and superior to homosexuality

• Challenges assupmtion that people are naturally divided into heterosexuals and gay individuals

• Concepts of sexual orientation are social constructs (asserts human sexuality more varied)

The Scientific Method

1. Formulating a research question

2. Framing the research question in the form of a hypothesis

3. Testing the hypothesis

4. Drawing conclusions

Methods of Observation

• Case-Study Method: Carefully drawn, in-depth biography of an individual or small group (focus on understanding one or several individuals as fully as possible)

• Survey Method: Researchers may survey respondents by interviewing or administering questionnaires; Participants may feel pressured to answer questions in direction of social desirability (subject to inaccuracies and biases from self-reporting)

• Naturalistic-Observation Method: Direct observation of animals and humans where behaviors happen

• Ethnographic-Observation Method: Provides data concerning behaviors and customs among various ethnic groups

• Participant-Observation Method: Researchers learn about individuals through direct interaction

• Laboratory-Observation Method: Behavior can be more carefully monitored; Masters and Johnson observed individuals and couples engaged in sex acts in a lab (offered first reliable data on what happens to the body during intercourse)

• Experimental Method: Best method for studying cause and effect; Independent (treatment) vs dependent variable (measured results); Experimental group (receive treatment) vs control group (does not receive treatment)

The National Surveys of Family Growth (NSFG)

• Conducted by the CDC to assess sexual behavior “relevant to demographic and public health concerns”

• Survey originally designed to represent U.S married women 15-44

• Now represents all people ages 15-49

• May be one of the few surveys to offer reasonably accurate estimates of sexual behavior in general U.S. population

External Sex Organs (Male)

Includes the penis and the scrotum

The Penis

• Like the vagina, the sex organ used in sexual intercourse

• Unlike the vagina, also a conduit for urine (semen and urine pass through the urethral opening)

• Penis contains 3 cylindrs of spongy material that run the length and swell with blood during arousal- The larger 2 (the corpora cavernosa) lie side by side and function like the bodies in the clitoris- A corpus spongiosum runs along the bottom surface of the penis

• At the tip, the spongy body enlarges into the glans (head) of the penis- The glans is highly sensititve to simulation- The corona/coronal ridge seperates the glans from the body of the penis- The frenulum connects the underside of the glans to the shaft- The skin covering the glans is the foreskin (prepuce), smegma may accumulate beneath it

• The base of the penis (root) extends into the pelvis- Attatched to the pelvic bone by crura

• Skin of the penis is hairless and loose, allowing expansion during erection

Circumcision

• Surgical removal of the foreskin

• Long history as a religious rite, though, for most Americans, there is no religious meaning

• CDC strongly endoreses the procedure- evidence that circumcision has many health benefits

Penis Size

Average penis is 5.16 inches (despite commonly held belief that it’s 6 inches)

The Scrotum

• Pouch of loose skin below the base of the penis

• Two compartments that hold the testes

• Each testicle held in place by spermatic cord, a structure that contains vas deferens, blood vessels and nerves, and the cremater muscle (raises and lowers testicles)

• Scrotum is loose-hanging and flexible (permits testes and nearby structures to excape higher body heat)

• In middle layer of the scrotum is the dartos muscle (contracts and relaxes in response to temperature changes- like the cremater muscle)

• Developed from the same tissue that becomes the labia majora in females

• Sensitive to sexual stimulation

Internal Sex Organs (Male)

• Testes

• Organs that manufacture sperm and testosterone

• System of tubes and ducts that conduct sperm through reproductive system

• Organs that nourish and activate sperm, neutralize some of acidity that sperm encounter in the vagina

The Testes

• Male gonads

• Serve 2 functions analogous to the ovaries: Secrete sex hormones (androgens) and produce mature germ cells (sperm)

• Most important androgen is testosterone

• Usually range between 1 and 1.75 inch in length

• Left testicle tends to hang lower as left spermatic cord tends to be longer

• Each testicle divided into many lobes filled with seminiferous tubules

Testosterone

• Secreted by interstitial cells/Leydig’s cells that lie between seminiferous tubules

• Stimulates pernatal differentiation of male sex organs, sperm production, and development of secondary sex characteristics

• Several endocrine glands keep testosterone levels stable in the blood stream

• Pituitary hormones, follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH), and lutenizing hormones (LH) regulate activites of the testes- Low levels signal the hypthalamus to secrete the LH-releasing hormone- High levels signal the pituatray gland not to secrete LH

Sperm

• Through spermatogenesis, the seminiferous tubules produce and store hundreds of billions of sperm throughout the lifetime

• Sperm cells develop through several stages; takes about 72 days for testes to manufacture mature sperm cells

• Early stage, sperm called spermatocytes- Each contains 46 chromosomes, including one X and one Y sex chromosome

• Each spermatocyte divides into 2 spermatids- Each contains 23 chromosomes, half the spermatids have X chromosome while the other half have Y chromosomes

• Mature sperm cells, spermatozoa, have a head, cone-shaped midpiece, and a tail

• During fertilization, 23 chromosomes in sperm combine with 23 chromosomes of ovum (XX combinatation develops female; XY develops male)

• Sperm cells possess receptors that detect attractants secreted by the ovum

• Sperm move through seminiferous tubules through ducts which converge in the epididymis (lies against the back wall of the testicle)- Sperm are inactive when they reach the epididymis, continue to mature for another 2 to 4 weeks

The Vas Deferens

• Each epididymis empties into a vas defens (a thin, cylindrical tube about 16 inches long)

• Conduit for mature sperm

• Lies near the skin’s surface within the spermatic cord

Vasectomy

When the right and left vas deferens are severed- prevents sperm from reaching the urethra

The Seminal Vesicles

• Two seminal vesicles are small glands, each about 2 inches long

• Lie behind bladder and open into ejaculatory ducts which open into the urethra

• Fluid produced by seminal vesicles is rich in fructose which nourishes sperm, helps them become motile

• Before reaching ejaculatory ducts, sperm propelled by contractions of the epididymis and vas defens and by cilla

The Prostate Gland

• Lies beneath the bladder and approximates a chestnut

• Contains muscle fibers and glandular tissue, secretes prostatic fluid (milky and alkaline —> produces charcterisitic texture and odor of seminal fluid; alkalinity neutralizes some of the acidity in the vaginal tract)

• Sexual arousal further stimulates secretions

Cowper’s Glands

• Also known as bulbourethral glands

• Lie below prostate and empty secretions into urethra

• During sexual arousal, emit a drop or so of clear, slippery fluid; Fluid may help buffer acidity of male urethra; Precedes ejaculate and contains sperm

Semen

• Seminal vesicles secrete about 70% of the fluid that constitutes semen

• Remaining 30% constists of sperm and fluids produced by Cowper’s glands and prostate

• Sperm account for only 1% of the volume of semen (typical ejaculate contain 200 to 400 million sperm)

• Activites and nourishes sperm

• Bases help shield sperm from vaginal acidity

Health Problems of the Male Urogenital System

• Urethritis: Bladder and urethral inflammations (Symtpms: urinary frequency, burning whle peeing, penile discharge)

• Penile Cancer: Cancer of the penis which begins on or inside the penis

• Testicular Cancer: Cancer which begins on or inside the testes

• Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BHP): Noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland

• Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate

• Prostate Cancer: Involves growth of malignant tumors which can spread to bones and lymph nodes if not detected and treated early; Second-most common form of cancer among men; Screening important for early detection (Digital Rectal Exam + PSA test); Surgical removal of prostate gland most common treatment

Male Sexual Functions

Erection and ejaculation provide means for sperm to travel from male reproductive tract to the femal tract

Erection

• Caused by engorgement of penis with blood- penis expands and stiffens

• Involves vascular system and nervous system

• Muscles close off the bladder to prevent mixture of semen and urine

• Erection reversed when more blood flows out of the erectile tissue than in (can occur for several reasons)

• Men have nocturnal erections every 90 or so minutes during sleep

Spinal Reflexes and Sexual Response

• Erection and ejaculation occur by reflex controlled by spinal cord

• Tactile stimulations to the penis cause sensory neurons to transmit nerve messages to an area of the lower back called the sacrum

The Role of the Brain

• Plays a role in regulating sexual response

• Brain originates messages that trigger erectile reflex, transmits nerve impulses to second, higher erection center located in the upper back

• Higher center serves as a switch board between brain a penis, allowing perceptual, cognitive, and emotional responses to contribute

The Role of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• Involved in automatic, unlearned reponses

• Two branches: Sympathetic (involved in release of energy) and parasympathetic (involved in processes which restore reserved energy)

• Parasympathetic system largely governs erection

• Ejaculation controlled by sympathetic system

Peyronie’s disease

An excessive curvature of the penis that can make erection painful

Priapism

Erections that can last hours or days

Ejaculation

• Spinal reflex (men can still learn to delay ejaculation)

• Occurs together with orgasm (but ejaculation and orgasm aren’t synonymous)

• Occurs in two stages: Emission stage (contractions occur, propels semen into urethral bulb) and Expulsion stage (seminal fluid propelled through urethra and out through tip of penis)

Retrogade Ejaculation

• When ejaculate is emptied into the bladder instead of being expelled from the body

• Usually harmless, but infertility can result

External Sex Organs (Female)

Vulva/Pudendum consists of:

• Mons veneris (fatty tissue covering the joint of the pubic bones in front of the body, below abdomen, and above clitoris)

• Labia majora and minora

• Clitoris (pleasure center of the vulva, serves no reproductive funciton, shaft consists of tissue containing corpora cavernosa that become erect when stimulated, prepuce/hood covers clitoral shaft, could be considered female counterpart of penis- homologous)

• Vaginal opening/introitus (the vestibule- area containing openings to vagina and urethra; hymen- a fold of tissue across vaginal opening; the perineum- skin and underlying tisssue between vaginal opening and anus)

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting

• Outlawed in the U.S. in 1996

• Attempt by patriarchal societies to control bodies and behavior of women (not comparable to male circumcision)

• For major types: Clitoridectomy, excision, infibulation, other

Structure that Underlie the External Sex Organs (Female)

• Vestibular bulbs: Attached to clitoris at the top, extend downward along sides of vaginal opening

• Bartholin’s glands: Lie just inside minor lips on each side vaginal opening

• Clitoral crura: Wing-shaped, leglike structures which attach the clitoris to pubic bone beneath

• Moisture from small blood vessels creates lubrication

Internal Sex Organs (Female)

• Innermost parts of the vagina (Typically 3-5 inches long at rest; Walls have three layers (mucosa, muscle, fibrous); Walls secrete substances that help maintain vaginal acidity; Vaginitis: Any vaginal inflammation)

• Cervix (Os: opening in the middle of the cervix)

• Uterus (Fundus: Uppermost part; The organ in which a fertilized ovum implants and develops until birth; Usually slants forward- antroverted; Three Layers: Endometrium, Myometrium, Perimetrium)

• Two ovaries (Produce ova and female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone); Each ovum is contained within a follicle —> Graafian follicle is the name given to follicle that releases ovum)

• Fallopian tubes (Connect the ovaries to the uterus; Isthmus: Part of tube nearest uterus; Ampulla: Isthmus broadens into the ampulla as it approached the ovary; Infundibulum: Outer part that has fimbraiae (fringelike projections); Tubes lined with cilia- help propel ova; Fertilization typically occurs in the infundibulum)

Cervical Cancer

• Primary cause is HPV

• Vital for women to be tested during routine gynecological exams (Pelvic Examine + Pap tests examine a sample of cervical cells)

• Most cases of cervical cancer can be treated by surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy

Hysterectomy

• Complete Hysterectomy: The surgical removal of ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix and uterus

• Partial hysterectomy: The removal of the uterus

The Breasts

• In American culture, breasts have erotic significance

• Secondary sex characteristics (distinguis males from females but not directly involved in reproduction)

• Each breast contain 15-20 clusters of mammary glands (gland opens at the nipple through individual ducts)

• Nipple lies in the center of the areola

Breast Cancer

• Mammography: Routine exam to detect abnormalities in the breast

• Must lumps are not cancerous, instead either cysts or benign tumors called fibroadenomas

• Mastectomy: The surgical removal of the breast (women may experience depression, anxiety, and stess afterwards)

• Lumpectomy: The removal of the malignant lump

• Women at extraordinarily high risk might choose to remove breasts prophylactically

• Black women more likely to die from breast cancer (though less likely to develop it as well)

The Menstrual Cycle

• The cyclical bleeding that stems from shedding of the uterine lining- takes place when reproductive cycle hasn’t led to fertilization of an ovum

• Regulated by estrogen and progesterone (but psychological factors can affect secretion of hormones)

• Average cycle is 28 days

• 4 Phases: Proliferative phase (egg develops and endometrium proliferatres), ovulation (estrogens reach critical level in blood causing ovary to release egg), luteal/secretory phase (endometrium thickens, secretion and blood supply increase due to follicle’s manufacture of progesterone), menstrual phase (surface of endometrium is sloughed off, restarts cycle)

• Menarche: First menstrual period

• Hypothalamus monitors blood levels of various hormones, releases gonadotropin-releasing hormones, stimulating the pituitary to release gonadotropins (regulate the activity of the gonads to release sex hormones)

Menopause, Perimenopause, and the Climacteric

• Menopasue: Cessation of menstruation (may begin anytime between ages of 35 and 60)

• Perimenopause: Beginning of menopause, characterized by 3-11 months of amenorrhea

• Climacteric: Gradual decline in reproductive capacity of ovaries (pituitary gland still releases FSH and LH into bloodstream, but ovaries lose capacity to respond)

Menstrual Concerns

• Dysmenorrhea: Pain or discomfort during menstruation- most common concern; Primary dysmenorrhea: pain or discomfort in absence of known organic pathology; Secondary dysmenorrhea: Identified organic problems such as endometriosis; Menstrual cramps may result from uterine spasms caused by secretions of prostaglandinds

• Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation, primary sign of infertility; Primary amenorrhea: Absence in a woman who hasn’t menstruated at all by age of 16 or 17; Seconday amenorrhea: Delayed or absent periods in women who had regular periods in the past

• Premenstrual Syndrom (PMS): Combination of physical and psychological symptoms affecting women during the 4- to 6-day interval preceding menses

• Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD): Diagnostic category of the APA, more severe and prolonged than PMS

Sexual Response Cycle

• Sequence of changes that takes place as men and women become more aroused referred to as the sexual response cycle

• Four phases: Excitement (results in erection in men and vaginal lubrication in women), Plateau (advanced state of arousal preceding orgasm- cowper’s glands and orgasmic platform), Orgasm, Resolution (body returns to prearoused state, men enter a refractory period)

Vasocongestion

Swelling of the genital tissues when aroused

Myotonia

Muscle tension resulting from arousal

Multiple Orgasms

• Masters and Johnson reported that most if not all of women capable of multiple orgasms

• Some men may be able to have 2 or more orgasms without ejaculation (“Dry orgasms”) preceding a final ejaculatory orgasm

Kinds of Orgasms

Masters and Johnson found only one kind of orgasm regardless of source of stimulation (involves the same biological events)

Erogenous Zones

• Parts of the body especially sensitive to tactile sexual stimulation

• Primary erogenous zones (endowed with nerve endings): Genitals, inner thighs, perineum, butt, breasts, ears, mouth, lips, tongue, neck, navel, and armpits

• Secondary erogenous zones become sensitized through experience (vary from person to person)

• Brain (particularyl cerebral cortex and limbic system) play key role in sexual functioning

Hormones

• Chemicals secreted by ductless glands of endocrine system into the bloodstream

• Sex hormons have organizing and activating effects on behavior- exert influence on type of behavior expressed and frequency of the drive

• Prenatal sex hormones play role in sexual differentiation of genitalie and of brain structures- Role in patterning sexual behavior in adults remains unclear

• Role of androgens in sex drive- but no one-to-one coreespondence between hormone levels, sex drive, or sexual performance