AP Psychology Unit 3 Key Concepts: Development, Learning, and Language

Piaget's Stages of Development

The four stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity does not change even when its shape does, typically developed during the Concrete Operational stage.

Reversibility

The ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts, gradually removing that support as they become more proficient.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, typically developed in the Sensorimotor stage.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, commonly seen in the Preoperational stage.

Theory of Mind

The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, understanding that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that differ from one's own.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information, guiding how we understand the world.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema.

Accommodation

The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, and intentions, often observed in children during the Preoperational stage.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.

Crystalized Intelligence

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience.

Flynn Effect

The observed rise over time in standardized intelligence test scores, suggesting that intelligence may be influenced by environmental factors.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Eight stages proposed by Erik Erikson, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development.

Confounding Variables

Variables that are not controlled in an experiment and may affect the outcome, leading to erroneous conclusions.

Generability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to settings or populations beyond the study sample.

Ethics in Psychology

Moral principles that guide research and practice in psychology, ensuring the welfare and rights of participants.

Types of Research Methods

Different approaches to conducting research, including experimental, observational, correlational, and survey methods.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.

Insight Learning

A form of problem-solving characterized by a sudden realization of a solution, often without trial-and-error.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of physical locations that help individuals navigate their environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.

Superstitious Learning

A behavior that is learned through the accidental association of a response with a reinforcement.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person feels unable to control or change a situation, often resulting from repeated failures.

Language Overgeneralization

The application of grammatical rules in cases where they do not apply, often seen in language development in children.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be words or parts of words.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another.

Grammar

The system of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language.

Syntax

The set of rules that dictate the structure of sentences, including word order.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including the meanings of words and phrases.

Critical Periods of Language Development

Specific time frames during which language acquisition occurs most easily and effectively.

Shaping

A conditioning method used to guide behavior toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive approximations.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the reinforcement is no longer presented.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause following extinction.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately.

Positive Reinforcement

The introduction of a pleasant stimulus after a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Positive Punishment

The introduction of an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Token Economies

A system of behavior modification based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior, where tokens are earned and exchanged for rewards.

Gender vs. Sex

Gender refers to the social and cultural roles associated with being male or female, while sex refers to the biological differences.

Development of Gender Roles

The process by which individuals learn the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with their gender.

Norms and Roles

Socially accepted standards and expectations that dictate how individuals should behave in various situations.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.

Sexual Orientation

A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to individuals of the same or different gender.

Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Styles

Ainsworth identified different styles of attachment in children, including secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent attachment.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to parenting, including authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian styles.

Temperament

The innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.

Biological Preparedness

The idea that organisms are innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

One Trial Learning

Learning that occurs after only one exposure to a stimulus, often seen in cases of strong emotional responses.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are naturally rewarding, such as food, water, and shelter.

Secondary Reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, such as money or praise.