Psychology Chapters 10, 11, and 13: Motivation, Gender, and Social Behavior

What is motivation?

The force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do.

What is an instinct according to the evolutionary approach?

An innate, biological pattern of behavior believed to be universal throughout a species.

What does drive reduction theory explain?

It explains that when a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it to achieve homeostasis.

What is the goal of drive reduction?

To maintain equilibrium or balance in the body.

What does the optimum arousal theory suggest?

Individuals seek a level of arousal that is ideal for facilitating goal attainment.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

It states that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal.

What physiological signals influence hunger?

Gastric signals and blood chemistry, including glucose and insulin levels.

What is satiety?

The state of feeling full.

What role does leptin play in hunger regulation?

Leptin decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure.

What happens if the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed?

Even a starving animal will show no interest in food.

What is obesity?

A condition where a person's level of body fat poses a health risk.

What is a set point in terms of body weight?

The weight maintained when no effort is made to gain or lose weight.

What characterizes anorexia nervosa?

An intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted body image, often leading to starvation.

What is bulimia nervosa?

An eating disorder involving a binge-and-purge pattern, where individuals eat large amounts and then purge.

What are some causes of eating disorders?

Sociocultural factors, biological underpinnings, and family dysfunction.

What is binge eating disorder (BED)?

Characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food with a feeling of lack of control, without purging.

What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

A theory that states individuals' main needs must be met in a specific order: physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

What is self-actualization?

The motivation to realize one's full potential as a human being, satisfied only after other needs are met.

What factors influence eating behavior?

Emotional states, external stimuli, and individual taste preferences.

What is the relationship between glucose and hunger?

Low sugar levels trigger receptors in the brain and liver, signaling hunger.

How does the ventromedial hypothalamus affect hunger?

It reduces hunger and restricts eating; stimulation stops eating, while destruction leads to overeating.

What is the mortality rate of anorexia nervosa?

It has the highest mortality rate of any psychological disorder.

What are common treatments for bulimia and anorexia?

Drug therapies, family therapy, and psychotherapy.

What role do dopamine levels play in binge eating disorder?

Dopamine levels related to reward pathways in the brain are examined as a cause of BED.

What is the impact of external factors on eating?

External factors such as plate size and time can influence how much people eat.

What is the relationship between emotional states and eating?

Emotional states can influence what and why we eat.

What is the significance of overlearning in performance?

Overlearning helps individuals perform tasks automatically, enhancing performance under arousal.

What is a common characteristic of individuals with binge eating disorder?

They are often classified as overweight or obese.

What are the three basic organismic needs according to Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory?

Competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

What does competence refer to in self-determination theory?

The feeling of being able to bring about desired outcomes and having the necessary skills.

What is autonomy in the context of self-determination theory?

The sense of being in control of one's own life and behavior.

What does relatedness mean in self-determination theory?

The need to engage in warm relations with other people.

How does self-determination theory relate to well-being?

Progress on goals that serve the three organismic needs is related to higher levels of well-being.

What is intrinsic motivation?

Motivation based on internal factors such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation that involves external incentives, such as rewards or avoiding punishments.

What is self-regulation?

The process by which an organism pursues important objectives and monitors progress.

What are key characteristics of effective goal setting?

Goals should be specific, short-term, and moderately challenging.

What is delay of gratification?

The ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward.

What did Mischel's study on delay of gratification involve?

Children being left alone with a tempting marshmallow to see how long they could wait before eating it.

How is emotion defined?

A feeling or effect that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression.

What role does the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) play in emotion?

It is involved in the body's arousal and immediate reaction to stressors, known as the fight-or-flight response.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) do?

It calms the body after a threat has passed, promoting maintenance and healing.

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

It states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment.

What does the Cannon-Bard theory propose?

Emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

What is the role of the amygdala in emotion?

It is involved in processing both positive and negative emotions, particularly fear.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

It suggests that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them.

What are display rules in the context of emotion?

Sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed.

What does valence refer to in emotions?

Whether an emotion feels pleasant (positive valence) or unpleasant (negative valence).

What are examples of positively valenced emotions?

Happiness, joy, pleasure, and contentment.

What are examples of negatively valenced emotions?

Sadness, anger, worry, and feeling upset.

What is negative affect?

Negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness.

What is beneficence motivation?

The pleasure experienced from helping another person.

What is the two-factor theory of emotion?

It posits that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

What was the debate between Lazarus and Zajonc about?

Whether cognitive appraisal or emotion occurs first.

What is positive affect?

Positive affect refers to positive emotions such as joy, happiness, love, and interest.

What does arousal level indicate in emotions?

Arousal level indicates the degree to which an emotion is reflected in an individual being active, engaged, or excited versus passive, disengaged, or calm.

What is the circumplex model of emotions?

The circumplex model of emotions is a graph that organizes emotions based on the dimensions of valence and arousal.

How are emotions classified based on motivation?

Emotions can be classified based on their relevance to the motivation to avoid punishers or to approach rewards.

What are the adaptive functions of negative emotions?

Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits in situations that threaten survival.

What is Barbara Frederickson's broaden-and-build model of positive emotion?

The broaden-and-build model states that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on our attention and ability to build resources.

What role do positive emotions play in resilience?

Positive emotions help resilient individuals cope successfully with stress and life's challenges.

What is resilience?

Resilience refers to the ability to bounce back from negative experiences and to be adaptable and flexible.

What is the heritability estimate of happiness?

The heritability estimates of happiness range from 50 percent to 80 percent.

What is the hedonic treadmill?

The hedonic treadmill captures the idea that enhancements to positive feelings are likely to be temporary as we adapt quickly to changes.

What activities can enhance happiness according to Sonja Lyubomirsky?

Intentional activities such as physical activity, kindness, positive self-reflection, and engaging in altruistic behavior can enhance happiness.

What is the definition of sex?

Sex refers to the biological features used to classify a person as male or female, including internal sex organs, external genitalia, chromosomal makeup, hormones, and secondary sex characteristics.

What does gender refer to?

Gender refers to social and cultural beliefs and expectations about what it means to be a boy/man or girl/woman.

What is gender identity?

Gender identity is a person's deeply held personal sense of being a boy/man, girl/woman, both, neither, or fluid.

What are sex chromosomes?

Sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair of chromosomes that code for genetic sex, with females having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome.

What are gonads?

Gonads are glands that produce sex hormones, ova (eggs), and sperm; ovaries are female gonads and testes are male gonads.

What is the SRY gene?

The SRY gene is a particular gene on the Y chromosome that triggers the development of embryonic testes and the production of androgens.

What are secondary sex characteristics?

Secondary sex characteristics are traits that typically differ as a function of sex but are not part of the reproductive system.

What are differences of sexual development (DSD)?

DSD are conditions present at birth that may include atypical development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex.

What is gender bias?

Gender bias refers to expectations for how people should think, act, and feel based on their perceived gender.

What is the gender binary?

The gender binary is the belief that there are two and only two categories of gender, biologically determined.

What does androgynous mean?

Individuals who are high in both masculinity and femininity are considered androgynous.

What are gender stereotypes?

Gender stereotypes are overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like.

What is the relationship between gender roles and socialization?

Socialization is powerfully related to gender identity, influencing how individuals perceive and enact gender roles.

What does the term 'gender binary' refer to?

The belief that there are two and only two categories of gender, which are biologically determined.

What is cisgender?

A person whose gender identity fits with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Define nonbinary.

Identifying as existing outside the typical male/female dichotomy.

What does genderqueer mean?

People who view themselves as defying culturally determined gender categories.

What is gender fluidity?

Movement within and across genders and gender roles.

What does transgender mean?

Experiencing one's gender as different from the sex assigned at birth.

What is gender expression?

How a person presents themselves in terms of their subjective sense of gender.

What does gender nonconforming refer to?

A person of any gender identity who does not conform to social expectations for gender.

What is gender dysphoria?

Experiencing extreme incongruence between sex assigned at birth and gender identity.

What is gender affirmation?

The process of transitioning as transgender or nonbinary, involving social and/or medical steps.

What role do puberty blockers play for transgender youth?

They provide a 'time-out' from sexual development to contemplate the path ahead.

How much more likely are transgender and nonbinary people to experience violent victimization compared to cisgender people?

Four times more likely.

What do biological approaches to gender development focus on?

How genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structures contribute to gender identity.

What does evolutionary psychology assert about gender differences?

They can be explained by selection pressures faced by our distant human ancestors.

What is sexual selection?

Differences between male and female members of a species due to competition and choice.

What challenges do men face in reproduction according to evolutionary psychology?

They may not be certain if a child is genetically theirs, leading to preferences for younger mates.

What do social cognitive approaches to gender development emphasize?

How children learn about gender through rewards, punishments, and observational learning.

What is social role theory?

It describes how institutional factors maintain gender roles and contribute to gender differences.

What does the most comprehensive view of gender development take into account?

It considers all theories of gender identity and development.

How do peer groups influence gender development?

Peer play is important, especially after age 6, when groups often segregate by gender.

What is the relationship between social support and outcomes for transgender youth?

High levels of social support predict better outcomes.

What is the significance of gender schemas?

They are internal cognitive frameworks for understanding appropriate behavior for different genders.