Unit 2 - Thinking and Intelligence - Psychology

Concepts

a mental grouping or representation of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that helps the mind organize information, make predictions, and communicate efficiently

Prototypes

the best, most typical, or idealized mental representation of an object, person, or concept within a category

Schemas

a cognitive framework or mental structure stored in long-term memory that helps you organize, interpret, and process incoming information.

assimilation

a cognitive process where individuals take new information, experiences, or ideas and fit them into pre-existing mental frameworks, known as schemas.

accommodation

the process of altering existing mental frameworks (called schemas) or creating new ones to incorporate new information that does not fit prior understanding

Algorithms

a structured, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that, when followed correctly, guarantees an accurate solution to a problem or a reliable decision-making outcome

Heuristics

fast, mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that allow people to solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments quickly with limited time and incomplete information

Representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut (cognitive bias) where people estimate the probability of an event, object, or person by comparing it to an existing prototype, stereotype, or mental average stored in their mind

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut where you judge the likelihood, frequency, or importance of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind

Mental set

a person's automatic tendency to approach a problem using a familiar strategy or frame of mind that has worked in the past, even when that method is no longer the best or most effective option

Functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to viewing an object only in its traditional, customary, or intended way, making it difficult to see alternative uses outside of that scope

Priming

a psychological and psycholinguistic phenomenon in which exposure to one stimulus (the prime) unconsciously influences how a person responds to a subsequent stimulus (the target)

Framing

a cognitive bias in which people decide differently based on how information is presented—such as whether it is framed as a gain or a loss—even when the underlying facts and logical outcomes are identical

Gambler’s fallacy

a cognitive bias in which a person mistakenly believes that past, independent random events will influence future outcomes

Sunk-cost fallacy

a cognitive bias in which a person continues with an endeavor, project, relationship, or course of action simply because they have already invested time, money, effort, or emotional energy into it—even when current and future evidence shows it is no longer the best or rational choice

Executive functions

The mental processes that help us plan, focus attention, remember instructions, manage multiple tasks to achieve goals

what are the 3 aspects of executive function

Working memory, Cognitive flexibility, Inhibitory control

Creativity

the ability to produce or develop work, ideas, theories, or techniques that are both novel (original) and useful (valuable or effective) within a given social or cultural context

Convergent thinking

a cognitive process that involves narrowing down multiple ideas, options, or pieces of data to arrive at a single, best, and most logical solution to a well-defined problem

divergent thinking

a cognitive process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions to an open-ended problem

g theory

a statistical construct in psychology that represents a broad mental capacity influencing performance across a wide variety of cognitive tasks

multiple abilities

a collection of distinct, relatively autonomous cognitive modalities and talents

IQ as mental age/chronological age

a numerical score representing a person's intellectual ability relative to their peers, originally calculated using the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

Modern uses of IQ tests for identifying  students in need of educational services

Modern IQ tests are primarily used in education to identify students who qualify for special education services or gifted and talented programs.

Standardization

the process of making test administration, scoring, and interpretation uniform and consistent for every person who takes the test

Norming

the process of establishing score standards or typical performance benchmarks for a psychological, educational, or psychometric test by administering it to a large, representative sample of a target population

Percentile rank

he percentage of scores in a normative comparison group that fall at or below a given individual's score

Reliability

the consistency and reproducibility of a measurement, test, questionnaire, or research tool

validity

the extent to which a test, measurement, or study accurately measures or reflects what it claims to measure

Content validity

the extent to which the items, questions, or components of a psychological assessment or test adequately represent and cover all facets of the target construct or domain it is designed to measure

Predictive validity

the degree to which a test score or psychometric assessment accurately forecasts future behavior, performance, or clinical outcomes

Test-retest reliability

the consistency of results obtained when the same psychological test or assessment is administered to the same group of people on two separate occasions

Split -half reliability

1. Administer once: You give a single test to a group of people.

2. Split the test: You divide the test items into two halves—commonly by putting odd-numbered questions in one half and even-numbered questions in the other.

3. Score each half: You calculate a score for each participant on the first half and a separate score for the second half.

4. Correlate the scores: You compare (correlate) the two sets of scores using a statistical formula (like the Pearson correlation).

factor analysis

a statistical method used in psychology to identify hidden patterns, groupings, or underlying dimensions (called latent variables or factors) by analyzing the correlations among a large set of directly measured variables

Stereotype threat

a situational psychological pressure that occurs when people worry that their behavior or performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their social group

Stereotype lift

a psychological phenomenon where members of a non-stereotyped (dominant) group experience an enhancement in performance or a score boost on evaluative tasks when they are aware of a negative stereotype targeting an outgroup

Flynn effect

the well-documented, substantial rise in average intelligence quotient (IQ) test scores observed across generations in many parts of the world throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries

Within group variation of IQ scores

the range, spread, or dispersion of intelligence test scores among individuals belonging to the same population, demographic, or social category

between group variation of IQ scores

the differences found between the average (mean) IQ scores of separate, distinct demographic groups

Discriminatory uses of intelligence testing

the application or interpretation of standardized IQ and cognitive ability tests in ways that systematically disadvantage, marginalize, or segregate individuals based on race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, language, or disability - eugenics

Achievement tests

a psychological or educational assessment designed to measure an individual's current level of skill, accomplishment, or acquired knowledge in a specific subject or task after a period of instruction or training

Aptitude tests

a standardized assessment designed to measure an individual's natural capacity, potential, or readiness to acquire specific skills or knowledge in the future, rather than evaluating what they have already learned

growth mindset

the belief that basic qualities, intelligence, talents, and abilities are not fixed traits, but can be developed and cultivated through dedication, hard work, learning, and persistence

fixed mindset

an individual believes that core personal traits, such as intelligence, talent, and natural abilities, are static, innate, and unchangeable