American Government Exam 2 Study Guide

Political Socialization

the process and the influences that shape a person’s worldview, values, and political orientation, including party identification and ideology

Bicameralism

Congress is bicameral, meaning it has two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Great Compromise helped establish this structure.

House of Representatives

-Representation: based on state population; larger states have more representatives.

-Size and terms: 435 voting members; two-year terms, with all seats up for election every two years.

-Speaker of the House: has substantial institutional power, including influence over the legislative calendar and debate.

-Individual members: power is dispersed across a large chamber, so members often build influence through policy specialties such as education, agriculture, or foreign policy.

Senate

-Representation: equal representation, with two senators per state and 100 total.

-Terms: six years, staggered so about one-third of seats are up for election every two years.

- Leadership: the Senate Majority Leader shapes the legislative agenda and calendar, but generally has less formal control than the House Speaker.

-Members: often work as generalists and can have greater individual bargaining power.

-The notes list a minimum age of 30.

-17th Amendment: established direct election of senators by voters rather than selection by state legislatures.

Gerrymandering

drawing electoral district boundaries to influence election outcomes. The notes identify three forms:

1. Incumbent

2. Partisan

3. Racial

Incumbent Gerrymandering

Protects current officeholders, regardless of party

Partisan Gerrymandering

The party controlling map-drawing tries to maximize its seats

Racial Gerrymandering

Boundaries manipulate minority voting power, for example by packing voters into one district or diluting their influence across districts

Closed Primary

Voters must be registered with a party to vote in that party’s primary

Semi-closed primary

Registered party members vote in their own party’s primary; unaffiliated voters may choose a party’s ballot

Open Primary

voters can choose which party’s primary to participate in without formally registering with that party; the notes identify Georgia as an example

Jungle/all-party Primary

Candidates from all parties appear on one ballot. Under the system described in the notes, a candidate who gets more than 50% wins; otherwise, the top two advance to a runoff.

Plurality/winner-take all election

The candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. It is simple, but a candidate can win with less than 50% when several candidates split the vote.

Runoff Elections

If no candidate exceeds 50%, the top two compete in a second election. It can produce a majority winner but costs more and may have lower turnout in round two.

Ranked-choice Voting (RCV)

Voters rank candidates. If no one has majority of first choices, the lowest candidate eliminated and votes transfer to next preferences until someone reaches a majority. It can reduce spoiler effects but may be harder to explain and count.

Historical Barriers

Literacy tests and poll taxes restricted access during the Jim Crow era; civil-rights reforms expanded access in the 1960s

Voter Suppression

Rules or logistical obstacles that make voting unreasonably difficult, such as excessive registration barriers or very long lines

Voter ID Debate

Focuses partly on which IDs count and how rules affect people who may have difficulty obtaining accepted identification

Early Voting and Drop Boxes

Expanded use during COVID-19 intensified debates over accessibility and security

2000 election

Bush v. Gore highlighted ballot-administration problems, including hanging chads, dimpled chads, and confusing butterfly ballots.

Voter fraud

Deliberate, intentional illegal actions intended to alter an election outcome. Such as absentee ballot, improper voter-roll entries, records for diseased voters, etc.

Caucus

Informal group organized around shared policy or regional interests, such as a Space Caucus or Peanut Caucus

Standing Committee

Permanent committee where bills are reviewed, amended, and developed; examples include Agriculture and Veterans Affairs

Appropriations Committee

Particularly influential because it deals with federal spending allocations

Select Committee

Temporary committee created for a particular investigation or limited-term issue

Committee assignments

the notes describe a historical role for seniority and a growing role for party loyalty

Bill Attrition

Many bills never leave committee, often because of low priority or political conflict

Identical Bill Rule

The House and Senate must pass the same text before a bill can go to the president

Conference Committee

Traditionally reconciles different House and Senate versions of a bill

Discharge Petition

In the House, a petition with 218 signatures can force a bill out of committee and onto the floor.

Omnibus Bill

A large bill combining many measures, often considered near the end of a session

Filibuster

A Senate tactic that delays or blocks action by prolonging debate or otherwise preventing a vote

Cloture

the procedure used to end debate; the notes emphasize the usual 60-vote threshold for many legislation-related cloture votes

Filibuster Pivot

A leader pulls or does not advance a proposal when the votes to overcome a filibuster are unavaliable

Logrolling

Vote trading — “I support your bill if you support mine”

Poison Pill

An amendment designed to make a bill unacceptable and cause it to fail

Rider

An additional provision, often on a different subject, attached to a bill

Unanimous consent agreement

all senators agree to streamline routine business or set terms for consideration

Budget Reconciliation

a process for certain budget-related legislation that can avoid a Senate filibuster if procedural requirements are met; the Senate parliamentarian advises on whether provisions qualify

Senate Hold

An informal request by a senator to delay action on a measure or nomination

Senate Confirmations

The Senate considers major presidential nominations, including Cabinet officials, Supreme Court justices, and military leadership

Henry Clay

Early powerful Speaker; known as “The Great Compromise”. The notes associate him with legislative supremacy — Congress leading domestic policymaking while the president focuses more on military and foreign affairs.

Sam Rayburn

Associated with the “Textbook Congress” era, institutional stability, dealmaking, and bipartisan functionality; mentored Lyndon B. Johnson

Newt Gingrich

Associated with a shift toward modern, high-conflict partisanship, more centralized Speaker power, and using televised proceedings to criticize opponents.

Dennis Hastert and the Hastert Rule

An informal rule that a Speaker generally brings a bill to the floor only if a majority of the majority party supports it

Lyndon B. Johnson’s “Johnson Treatment”

Persuasion through charm and flattery, legal gifts or political favors, and personal pressure or intimidation

Founding Era

Fewer formal parties than today; intense personal rivalries but considerable legislative activity. Early Congress defended separation of powers and kept the president out of floor debates.

Pre-Civil War/ Age of Jackson

Increasing division and violence; the Gag Rule restricted House debate on slavery. In 1856, Representative Preston Brooks caned Senator Charles Sumner after an anti-slavery speech.

Post-Civil War/”Czar” Era

powerful Speakers exercised tight control, supported in part by political machines, patronage, and boss rule.

Textbook Congress

committee power, regular order, compromise, and cross-party cooperation; landmark legislation included Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. The era also overlapped with Jim Crow and lacked representative diversity.

Modern Contemporary Congress

hyper-partisanship, gridlock, low productivity on major legislation, and recurring budget confrontations.

Charlie Wilson (“Good Time Charlie”)

Texas representative known for flamboyant conduct and rule-breaking; played a role in covert U.S. support for Afghan mujahideen fighting the Soviet invasion, as described in the notes.

“Board of Education”

the notes describe an informal congressional space or club where senior and rising members negotiated deals during the Textbook Congress period.

House Members Pay, Wealth, Ethics, and Workload

-Base Salary: $174,000 for standard members and higher compensation for leadership

-Pension eligibility after 5 years of service

-Workload: members divide time between Washington D.C. and their home districts

-They do not receive Washington D.C. housing; Housing and travel can be expensive

-Outside earned income is capped

-Debate over pay increases: supporters argue higher pay makes office accessible to younger and less-wealthy people and may reduce corruption; opponents argue pay should be closer to average-worker wages

Power of the purse

Congress controls appropriations and revenue; the president cannot spend federal money without legal authorization.

Appropriation

formal legislative authorization to spend a specified amount for a purpose

Government Shutdown

occurs when funding legislation is not enacted by the deadline. Some operations pause, non-essential workers may be furloughed, and essential workers may continue working.

Debt Ceiling

statutory limit on federal borrowing. Failure to raise or suspend it when needed risks default and potentially severe economic consequences.

Impoundment

a president’s refusal to spend funds appropriated by Congress. The notes say Nixon’s use of impoundment to defund programs led to a court rejection; presidents retain limited flexibility in some contexts

Shutdowns and debt-ceiling disputes are different

shutdowns concern spending authority for government operations; the debt ceiling concerns borrowing to meet financial obligations.

Delegate Model

a representative votes according to constituents’ preferences, even when those preferences differ from the representative’s own views.

Trustee Model

a representative uses personal judgment, experience, and conscience

Factors Affecting Members’ Votes

party alignment, campaign donors and special interests, constituents, lobbyists, friends, and family.

Incumbent

Someone currently holding office

Incumbency Advantage

name recognition, easier fundraising, constituency service (help with agencies such as the VA or IRS), patronage, and bringing federal funds or projects to the district.

Presidential System

executive and legislature are separately elected and have distinct powers; fixed terms and checks and balances can create stability but also gridlock.

Parliamentary System

executive leadership emerges from the legislature; a prime minister usually depends on maintaining legislative or coalition support. This can reduce gridlock but make governments and policy direction change more quickly.

Hybrid/semi-presidential system

a president and prime minister share executive responsibilities; the notes use France as an example.

Question Time

is a scheduled session in a parliamentary legislature where members of parliament ask questions directly to government ministers, including the prime minister or premier.

What are the qualifications and five umbrellas of presidential power?

-Qualifications: natural-born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years old, and 14 years of U.S. residence

-Military: Commander in chief

-Judicial: pardons, reprieves, and judicial nominations

-Diplomatic: treaties, ambassadors, and executive agreements

-Executive: carrying out laws, appointing federal officers, and managing the bureaucracy

-Legislative: vetoes, negotiation with congressional leaders, and efforts to shape the lawmaking agenda

Delegated powers

powers Congress assigns to the presidency over time, such as taking a leading role in foreign policy or submitting budget proposals.

Inherent powers

powers viewed as necessary to carry out constitutional responsibilities.

Executive orders

directives for managing executive-branch operations; they can be revoked by later presidents and depend on legal authority and available funding.

Executive privilege

claimed confidentiality for internal executive communications; it does not permit concealing criminal activity, as the notes connect to United States v. Nixon.

Unitary executive theory

argues that the president should have strong control over executive-branch officials and the bureaucracy.

Signing statements

comments or interpretations issued when signing a bill. Controversy arises when a president uses one to direct implementation in ways critics say expand executive power or weaken the law’s intent.

Growth of the modern presidency

-The executive branch and presidential staff grew substantially over time

-Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the New Deal were major turning points in presidential power

-Executive office of the president

-First Ladies developed their own policy interests and advisory roles

Executive Office of the President

umbrella term for offices and agencies that support the president, including close advisers, the National Security Council, and the Office of Management and Budget

Presidential Veto

rejects a bill; Congress can override with a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

Line-item veto

lets an executive reject selected spending items while approving the rest. The notes say many governors have this power, but the U.S. president does not

Going Public

a president appeals directly to citizens through speeches or media to pressure Congress; it can backfire if public support is weak

Power of the Purse

Congress’s major check on the president because spending requires congressional authorization

Vice President

presides over the Senate and breaks tie votes; can assume presidential power temporarily if the president is incapacitated and succeeds to the presidency under the constitutional succession rules

Ticket balancing

a running mate may be chosen to appeal to a particular region, demographic, or faction

What happens when the vice presidency becomes vacant?

  the president nominates a replacement who must be approved by both houses of Congress, as described in the notes.

Recess Appointments

historically allowed temporary appointments during a Senate recess; pro forma sessions can be used to prevent the Senate from being considered formally in recess

Impeachment

the House impeaches (formally accuses) by simple majority; the Senate conducts the trial and requires a two-thirds vote to convict and remove.

Honeymoon Period

the first six to nine months of a presidency, when approval and congressional cooperation may be temporarily higher.

Rally-around-the-flag effect

a short-term rise in presidential approval during a major crisis or foreign-policy success

Primary and caucus rules

Republican winner-take-all delegate allocation with Democratic proportional allocation; actual party rules can vary by state and election cycle

Super Tuesday

day when many states hold contests; the notes emphasize its importance to Southern states and candidates.

Nixon vs. Kennedy Televised debate

the notes use it to illustrate how television appearance and radio-based impressions can differ.

House vs. Senate

House: population, 435, 2-year terms, Speaker has strong procedural power. Senate: 2 per state, 100, 6-year staggered terms, Majority Leader negotiates and sets agenda.

Delegate vs. Trustee

Delegate follows constituent preferences; trustee uses personal judgment.

Plurality vs. runoff vs. RCV

Plurality: most votes wins. Runoff: top two compete again if nobody reaches the threshold. RCV: voters rank candidates and votes transfer as candidates are eliminated.

Shutdown vs. Debt ceiling

Shutdown: no enacted funding authorization for some government operations. Debt ceiling: limit on Treasury borrowing to meet obligations.

Voter fraud vs. Voter suppression

Fraud is intentional illegal conduct to alter results; suppression is rules or obstacles that make voting unreasonably difficult.

Standing vs. Select committee

Standing committees are permanent; select committees are temporary and issue-specific.

Presidential vs. Parliamentary

Presidential systems separate executive and legislature; parliamentary executives depend on legislative support.

Impeachment vs. Conviction

Impeachment is the House’s formal accusation; conviction/removal requires a two-thirds Senate vote.