CJ Exam 2

Knapp Commission (1972)

Investigated corruption in the NYPD.

Frank Serpico

NYPD officer who exposed police corruption as a whistleblower.

Whistleblower

An insider who reports wrongdoing.

Rotten Apple Theory

The idea that police corruption is caused by a few bad officers; rejected by the Knapp Commission.

Grass-eaters

Officers who passively accept or tolerate corruption.

Meat-eaters

Officers who actively engage in corruption, such as accepting bribes.

Christopher Commission

Investigated the LAPD after the 1991 beating of Rodney King and identified racism and bias.

Contemporary Policing

The approach to policing focused on improving public quality of life through law enforcement, crime prevention, and arrests.

Police Core Values

Respect for law and community, professional service, public safety, and ethical conduct.

Police Gatekeepers

Police officers who help determine who enters the criminal justice system.

Discretion

The ability to decide how to respond to a situation, including whether to make an arrest.

Reactive Policing

Responding to calls for service, such as 911 calls.

Proactive Policing

Police activities intended to prevent crime before it occurs.

Police Patrol Duties

Maintaining police presence, keeping public order, helping people, and identifying and apprehending suspects.

Chief of Police

The highest-ranking officer in a police department, usually appointed by a mayor or city council.

Police Subculture

Shared values, attitudes, and behaviors that develop within police organizations.

Socialization

Learning the values and behaviors of a group after joining it.

Code of Silence

The practice of officers not reporting misconduct by fellow officers.

Police Job Satisfaction

Can come from helping others, meaningful work, and job security.

Police Job Dissatisfaction

Can result from excessive rules and limited advancement opportunities.

Gender in Policing

Research suggests male and female officers are equally competent, although approaches to force and communication may differ.

Race and Ethnicity in Policing

Police departments have become more diverse since the 1970s, but minority representation remains limited in the supplied notes.

Community Policing

A proactive policing philosophy based on community collaboration, partnerships, and crime prevention.

Community Policing Partnerships

Cooperation between police, local communities, and community resources.

Organizational Transformation

Structuring a police department to support community partnerships and proactive initiatives.

Problem-Solving

Identifying crime-related problems and developing effective responses.

Dark Figure of Crime

Crimes that go unreported or are not recorded.

Problem-Oriented Policing (POP)

An approach that uses crime data and analysis to identify and solve specific crime problems.

SARA Model

A problem-solving model meaning Scan, Analyze, Respond, and Assess.

Scan

Identify and prioritize crime problems.

Analyze

Research a problem and its causes.

Response

Develop and implement solutions to a problem.

Assessment

Evaluate whether a response successfully addressed a problem.

Routine Activity Theory (RAT)

The theory that crime becomes more likely when a motivated offender, suitable target, and absence of a capable guardian come together.

Motivated Offender

A person willing to commit a crime.

Suitable Target

A person or object that an offender may target.

Capable Guardian

A person or measure that can prevent crime.

Crime Triangle

A model focusing on offenders, targets, and guardians to identify ways to prevent crime.

Broken Windows Theory

The idea that visible disorder and neglected neighborhoods may contribute to increased crime.

Zero-Tolerance Policing

Strict enforcement against minor offenses to try to prevent more serious crime.

Hot Spots Policing

Concentrating police resources in specific locations with high crime rates.

Procedural Justice

Treating people fairly by giving them a voice, remaining neutral, and showing dignity and politeness.

Attribution Theory

The explanation of behavior by referring to a person's situation or personal disposition.

Disposition

A person's personal characteristics or traits used to explain behavior.

Use of Force

The level of force police use in response to the circumstances.

Continuum of Force

The idea that the appropriate level of force depends on circumstances such as behavior, weapons, and compliance.

Racial Profiling

Questioning or investigating someone based on race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin.

Implicit Bias

Automatic beliefs or feelings that influence judgment without conscious awareness or intention.

Rule of Law

The principle that everyone, including government officials, must follow the law and Constitution.

Weeks v. United States (1914)

A case involving an unconstitutional warrantless search and seizure that helped establish the exclusionary rule in federal cases.

Due Process

Legal procedures that protect individual rights.

Fifth Amendment

Provides due process protections at the federal level.

Fourteenth Amendment

Provides due process protections at the state level.

Procedural Due Process

Legal protections governing procedures such as arrests and trials.

Double Jeopardy

Protection against being tried twice for the same offense.

Probable Cause

A sufficient factual basis to reasonably believe a crime occurred or that evidence will be found; generally required for arrests and warrants.

Reasonable Suspicion

A lower standard based on specific circumstances suggesting criminal activity.

Terry v. Ohio (1968)

Allowed police to stop and frisk a person based on reasonable suspicion.

Terry Stop

A brief police detention based on reasonable suspicion.

Peters v. New York (1968)

A case identified in the notes as upholding the legality of stop and frisk.

Stop and Frisk

A procedure allowing police to briefly detain a person and conduct a limited pat-down for weapons when legally justified.

Adams v. Williams (1972)

Recognized that information from a police informant can support reasonable suspicion.

Alabama v. White (1995)

Found that an anonymous tip could provide reasonable suspicion for a stop in the circumstances of the case.

Florida v. J.L. (2000)

Rejected a general firearms exception to the reasonable-suspicion requirement for anonymous tips.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Applied the exclusionary rule to state criminal proceedings.

Exclusionary Rule

Rule preventing unlawfully obtained evidence from being used in court.

Fruit of the Poisonous Tree

Doctrine that may exclude evidence derived from an illegal search or other unlawful police action.

United States v. Leon (1984)

Recognized a good-faith exception when officers reasonably rely on a warrant later found defective.

Good-Faith Exception

An exception that may allow evidence when officers reasonably relied on a defective warrant.

Inevitable Discovery

Evidence may be admitted if it would have been discovered legally anyway.

Fourth Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Reasonable Expectation of Privacy

A level of privacy that society recognizes as reasonable and that may receive legal protection.

Katz v. United States (1967)

A case establishing important privacy-based protections against government searches.

California v. Greenwood (1988)

Held that police generally do not need a warrant to search trash left for collection outside the home.

GPS Tracking

The Supreme Court ruled in 2012 that installing a GPS device on a vehicle in the circumstances of the case required a warrant.

Kyllo v. United States (2001)

Held that using thermal imaging to obtain information about a home generally requires a warrant.

Canine Search

A search involving a police dog, subject to constitutional limits.

Search Warrant

Legal authorization for police to conduct a search.

Knock-and-Announce

An entry procedure in which police identify themselves and announce their presence, subject to exceptions.

No-Knock Warrant

A warrant allowing police to enter without first announcing their presence when legally justified.

Consent Exception

A warrant exception allowing a search when valid, voluntary consent is given.

Plain View Exception

Allows police to seize apparent evidence or contraband seen from a lawful position when legal requirements are met.

Exigent Circumstances

Emergency conditions that may justify action without waiting for a warrant.

Search Incident to Lawful Arrest

Allows certain searches connected to a lawful arrest.

Automobile Exception

Allows a vehicle search without a warrant when probable cause justifies it.

Regulatory Search

A search conducted for a specific government regulatory purpose, such as certain health inspections.

Suspicionless Search

A search permitted in certain settings without individualized suspicion under specific legal rules.

Emergency Doctrine

May permit immediate action when danger or destruction of evidence is imminent.

Arrest

Taking a person into legal custody.

Lawful Arrest

An arrest based on a valid warrant or sufficient probable cause.

Judicial Power

The authority of courts to interpret and apply the law.

Judicial Review

The power to determine whether laws or government actions violate the Constitution.

Strict Interpretation

Interpreting the Constitution primarily through its literal wording.

Contextual Interpretation

Interpreting the Constitution with consideration of historical, social, and technological circumstances.

Judicial Activism

A term for judicial decisions that use broad interpretations of the Constitution or law.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Rejected racial segregation in public schools and overturned the separate-but-equal doctrine in public education.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Established the separate-but-equal doctrine that was later rejected in public education by Brown v. Board of Education.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Recognized a constitutional right to same-sex marriage under the Fourteenth Amendment.

Dual Court System

The separate federal and state court systems.

Jurisdiction

A court's legal authority to hear and decide a case.