Phenomenology

Phenomenology, developed by E____ H_____, comes from the word phenomenon, meaning things as they appear to our s____, and is the study of how r___ is experienced s____, emphasising that knowledge is based on i____’ c____ p____ rather than any o____ e___ truth.

what does some philosophers argue ?

Phenomenology, developed by Edmund Husserl, comes from the word phenomenon, meaning things as they appear to our senses, and is the study of how reality is experienced subjectively, emphasising that knowledge is based on individuals’ conscious perceptions rather than any objective external truth.

Some philosophers argue that we can never have definite knowledge of what the world outside our minds is really like 'in itself' - all we can know is what our senses tell us about it.

Husserl's argument

• Husserl argues that the world only makes sense because we how?

• What is the example of a table?

• In this view, we can only obtain knowledge about the world through our m____ acts of c___ and giving m___ to our experiences. The world as we know it is, and can only be, a p____ of our m___.

Husserl's argument

• Husserl argues that the world only makes sense because we impose meaning and order on it by constructing mental categories that we use to classify and 'file' information coming from our senses. e,g a schema

• For example, a category such as 'four-legged furniture for eating off' enables us to identify a particular set of sensory data as 'table'.

• In this view, we can only obtain knowledge about the world through our mental acts of categorising and giving meaning to our experiences. The world as we know it is, and can only be, a product of our mind.

Schutz's phenomenological sociology

• S_____ (1899-1959) applies this idea to the social world.

• He argues that the categories and concepts we use are not u____ to ourselves - rather, we share them with other members of s____.

Schutz's phenomenological sociology

• Schutz (1899-1959) applies this idea to the social world.

• He argues that the categories and concepts we use are not unique to ourselves - rather, we share them with other members of society.

Schutz's phenomenological sociology →Typifications

• Schutz calls these shared categories typifications.

• Typifications enable us to do what?

• In Schutz's view, the meaning of any given experience varies according to its s___ c____. For example, raising your arm means one thing in c___ and quite another at an a__.

• The meaning is not given by the action in itself, but by its c____. For this reason, meanings are potentially u___ and u____ - especially if others classify the action in a d____ way from oneself. Imagine what would happen if, at an a___, you behaved as if you were in c___ and raised your hand to ask a q___.

• Fortunately, however, typifications s___ and c____ meanings by ensuring that we are all 'speaking the same l____' - all agreeing on the meaning of things. This makes it possible for us to c____ and c____ with one another and thus to achieve our goals.

• Without shared typifications, what would happen? + example

• However, in Schutz's view, members of society to a large extent do have a s___ 'l____ world' - a stock of s____ t____ or c___ knowledge that we use to make sense of our experience.

• It includes shared an____ about the way things are, what certain situations mean, what other people's motivations are and so on.

• Schutz calls this 'recipe knowledge': - what does this mean?

• This commonsense knowledge is not simply knowledge about the world - it is the w____. As we saw, for Husserl the world as we know it can only be a product of our m____ Similarly, for Schutz the social world is a shared, i___-s___ world that can only exist when?

Schutz's phenomenological sociology →Typifications

• Schutz calls these shared categories typifications.

• Typifications enable us to organise our experiences into a shared world of meaning.

• In Schutz's view, the meaning of any given experience varies according to its social context. For example, raising your arm means one thing in class and quite another at an auction.

• The meaning is not given by the action in itself, but by its context. For this reason, meanings are potentially unclear and unstable - especially if others classify the action in a different way from oneself. Imagine what would happen if, at an auction, you behaved as if you were in class and raised your hand to ask a question.

• Fortunately, however, typifications stabilise and clarify meanings by ensuring that we are all 'speaking the same language' - all agreeing on the meaning of things. This makes it possible for us to communicate and cooperate with one another and thus to achieve our goals.

• Without shared typifications, social order would become impossible.For example, if you see a certain object as a desk (for writing at), while I take it for an altar (for worshipping at), considerable problems might result.

• However, in Schutz's view, members of society to a large extent do have a shared 'life world' - a stock of shared typifications or commonsense knowledge that we use to make sense of our experience.

• It includes shared assumptions about the way things are, what certain situations mean, what other people's motivations are and so on.

• Schutz calls this 'recipe knowledge': like a recipe, we can follow it without thinking too much, and still get the desired results in everyday life. For example, we all 'know' that a red light means stop or danger and this knowledge enables us to drive safely.

• This commonsense knowledge is not simply knowledge about the world - it is the world. As we saw, for Husserl the world as we know it can only be a product of our mind Similarly, for Schutz the social world is a shared, inter-subjective world that can only exist when we share the same meanings. For example, a red traffic light only 'means' stop because we all agree that it does.

The natural attitude -basically the idea of s____ (the world exists o____ you)

• However, society appears to us as a r____, o____ thing existing outside of us

• . To illustrate this, Schutz gives the example of posting a letter to a bookshop to order a book. - what is the example?

• The fact that we do get the book encourages us to adopt what he calls 'the natural attitude' - that is, it leads us to a____ that the social world is a s____, n____ thing out there. However, for Schutz, it simply shows that all those involved (the book buyer and seller, the postal workers) share the same m____, and this allows us to c____ and achieve goals.

The natural attitude -basically the idea of sonder (the world exists outside you)

• However, society appears to us as a real, objective thing existing outside of us

• . To illustrate this, Schutz gives the example of posting a letter to a bookshop to order a book. In doing so, he says, we assume that some unknown and unseen individuals (postal workers, a bookshop owner) will perform a whole series of operations in a particular sequence - and that all this will result in our receiving the book.

• The fact that we do get the book encourages us to adopt what he calls 'the natural attitude' - that is, it leads us to assume that the social world is a solid, natural thing out there. However, for Schutz, it simply shows that all those involved (the book buyer and seller, the postal workers) share the same meanings, and this allows us to cooperate and achieve goals.

Strengths of Phenomenology

what is a strength of Phenomenology?

Strengths of Phenomenology

✓provides a deep understanding of individuals’ subjective experiences. By focusing on how people interpret and make sense of the social world, it offers rich, detailed insights into human behaviour that more structural theories may overlook.

Limitations of Phenomenology

✘- However, B____ and L____ (1971) argue that while Schutz is right to focus on shared commonsense knowledge, they reject what?

• Although reality is socially constructed, as Schutz believes, once it has been constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an e____ r___ that reacts back on us.

• What is the example of church?

Limitations of Phenomenology

✘- However, Berger and Luckmann (1971) argue that while Schutz is right to focus on shared commonsense knowledge, they reject his view that society is merely an inter-subjective reality.

• Although reality is socially constructed, as Schutz believes, once it has been constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back on us.

• For example, religious ideas may start off in our consciousness, but they become embodied in powerful structures such as churches, which then constrain us - for example, by influencing laws about our sexual relationships