midterm terms

sociology

the systematic, scientific study of human society, social behavior, patterns of social relationships, and cultural interactions.

value-free sociology

once a research study is underway, the sociologist must remain strictly neutral, objective, and detached.

value-relevant research

recognized that values inevitably influence the selection of research topics.

role conflict

A situation occurring when incompatible behavioral expectations arise from two or more distinct statuses held simultaneously by the same person

role strain

Tension or incompatibility among the diverse demands and behavioral expectations embedded within a single social status

sociological

critical perspective that enables individuals to understand the intersection between personal biography and public history within a specific social structure.

structuration

Social structure is not solely external to or constraining of human action; rather, structures are both the medium and the outcome of the practices they organize.

material culture

physical objects, artifacts, spaces, and technologies created, utilized, and modified by human beings within a society

nonmaterial culture

intangible, abstract human creations that shape ideology, perception, and behavior

five components of culture

symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms

Howard S. Becker’s perspective on culture

thought of culture as shared understandings and common knowledge that facilitate collective action. not an abstract monolith but an active resource that enables individuals to coordinate their behavior and do things together effectively in changing social contexts

culture as a resource

conceptually formed by Ann Swidler; culture functions as “tool kit” of symbols, stories, rituals, and worldviews from which social actors select strategies of action to navigate daily challenges and structural environments

material social facts

visible, tangible structural features of society, such as architectural layouts, population density, communications infrastructure, and written legal codes

nonmaterial social facts

intangible moral forces and collective mental states, including social norms, values, collective conscience, and social currents

sociological mindfulness

conscious practice of being aware of how the social world is constructed, where knowledge originates, and how human actions are interconnected

dimensions of sociological mindfulness

1. recognize social arrangements are human creations, not unalterable laws of nature, and can therefore be reformed or changed

2. understand knowledge is socially situated; critical assessment of claims + motives behind them

3. cultivate curiosity abt unintended consequences of social behaviors and policies

4. view individual lives as interwoven within systemic webs of advantage, disadvantage, and collective responsibility

micro-sociology

focuses on face-to-face interpersonal interactions, small groups, daily encounters, and the subjective meanings individuals assign to their immediate social realities

meso-sociology

analyzes intermediate structural dynamics, such as formal organizations, social movements, communities, institutional networks, and inter-organizational relationships

macro-sociology

investigates large-scale, society-wide structural systems, social institutions, long-term historical processes, global dynamics, and comprehensive patterns of stratification

structural functionalism

views society as an integrated, complex system whose components work together to promote solidarity, order, and equilibrium

conflict theory

views society as an arena of fundamental inequality, domination, and conflict among distinct social groups competing for scarce power and resources. argues social institutions don’t promote universal harmony but instead serve interests of dominant classes while subordinating marginal gropus

symbolic interactionism

micro-level framework conceptualizing society as ongoing product of everyday social interactions btwn individuals. emphasizes that ppl act toward things based on symbolic meanings those things possess, that these meanings are negotiated through social interaction, and that meanings are modified through reflective interpretation

quantitative sociology

numerical measurement, mathematical modeling, and statistical analysis

qualitative sociology

Focuses on in-depth, interpretive understanding of human behavior, cultural meanings, and subjective lived experiences

seven stages of sociological research process

define the research problem, review literature, form hypothesis/research question, select research design, collect data, analyze data, report findings

stanford prison experiment

Demonstrated how social roles, institutional scripts, and situational forces can override individual morality, leading guards to exhibit psychological abuse and prisoners to suffer acute stress and emotional breakdowns

Durkheim’s organic analogy

compares society to a biological organism; just as living body is composed of specialized organs working in harmony, society consists of specialized social institutions that coordinate to maintain social solidarity, moral equilibrium, and stability. deregulation in one social institution disrupts equilibrium of entire social body

four features of social institutions

historical endurance, normative regulation, interdependence, constraining and enabling structure

historical endurance

institutions persist across generations and operate beyond the lifespan of particular individuals

normative regulation

institutions enforce formal and informal rules, establishing behavioral boundaries through social sanctions

interdependence

institutions are structurally interconnected; shifts in one institution trigger functional adjustments in others

constraining and enabling structure

institutions simultaneously constrain personal impulses by enforcing roles, while enabling coordinated social behavior by providing clear structural roadmaps

New Mexico State Penitentiary Riot

When an institution transitions abruptly from an informal system of negotiated order to arbitrary, fragmented, and unpredictable coercive repression, inmate solidarity disintegrates, informal social controls dissolve, and extreme collective violence erupts

social stratification

system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

principles of stratification

1. characteristic of society, not a mere reflection of individual talent or effort

2. persists across generations, perpetuated through intergenerational transfers of wealth, power, and privilege

3. universal but variable; every known society exhibits hierarchy, but criteria and degrees of inequality differ

4. not just material inequality, but ideological belief systems that legitimate the existing hierarchy as natural, just, or necessary

Davis-Moor Thesis

argued that social stratification is a universal necessity with positive functional consequences for society. society must ensure that its most functionally important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified and capable individuals.

reward distribution

High-skill, functionally vital roles require prolonged, sacrificial training. Society attaches disproportionate rewards (income, prestige, power) to these positions to incentivize individuals to undergo this training

Weber’s Dimensions of Stratification

Weber rejected Marx’s purely economic unidimensional view of stratification, proposing multidimensional model - class, status, party/power

status inconsistency

A structural condition where an individual occupies divergent positions across the three dimensions of stratification

social class

determined by one's relationship to the market.

status group

culturally determined by shared social honor, positive or negative social privileges, and distinct lifestyles

life chances

concept defining empirical probabilities an individual has of acquiring material goods, achieving physical and mental well-being, and experiencing positive life outcomes

lifestyle

distinctive patterns of consumption, leisure, dress, speech, and social interaction embraced by status group to signal insider membership and exclude outsiders

culture capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility and give individuals advantages in society, such as education, intellect, style of speech, and dress.

vertical mobility

the ability to move up or down the social hierarchy, affecting one's social status and access to resources.

horizontal mobility

movement from one social position to another w/in the same status or income level

intergenerational mobility

the changes in social status that occur from one generation to the next, influencing wealth, education, and occupation.

intragenerational mobility

movement within a person's lifetime between different social strata, reflecting changes in social status or income.

structural mobility

changes in social status due to structural shifts in society, such as economic changes, policy shifts, or demographic transformations.

gender as social structure

gender is not merely an individual identity, biological difference, or internalized role, but comprehensive social structure

gender - individual level

development of gendered identities and internal self-conceptions through socialization

gender - interactional level

cultural expectations and social pressures to “do gender” during interpersonal encounters, subjecting people to gender-typed policing

gender - macro-institutional level

explicit laws, institutional policies, and organizational distributions of material resources that allocate power and status differently along gender lines

Domhoff Institutionalization of Upper Class

the establishment of social and economic structures that maintain the influence and privileges of the upper class within institutions like politics, education, and media.

social mechanisms

elite private boarding schools, exclusive country clubs, debutante balls, etc. interlocks socialize members into a shared class identity

transformative assets

intergenerational transfers of wealth, such as inheritances, down-payment assistance for home purchases, or parental funding for higher education, that move a family beyond their own earned income capacity into a higher socioeconomic trajectory

homeownership

single largest vehicle for middle-class household wealth accumulation in US

racial wealth disparities

inequities in wealth among different racial groups resulting from historical, social, and economic factors.

socialization

lifelong social process through which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and culture of their society and develop a distinct social identity

Goffman Approach

Goffman analyzed human social interaction through the metaphor of theatrical performance

impression management

conscious or subconscious efforts of an actor to control, manipulate, and shape the perceptions and impressions that others form of them during social interactions

front stage

social space where performances are delivered before an audience. the way actors use props and costumes to conform to expectations

back stage

social space where audience is not present; performers can relax, drop personas, be authentic

face-work

interpersonal strategies used to maintain, protect, or restore “face” when an interactional disruption threatens the performance

Cooley - Looking Glass Self

argued that an individual’s sense of self is a social product derived form the reflected appraisals of others

three components of looking glass self

1. we imagine how our appearance, behaviors, and identity present to other people

2. imagine how other judge, evaluate, and react to that presentation

3. develop a self-concept or self-feeling based on our perception of their judgment

the “i” - self as subject

The spontaneous, creative, impulsive, unsocialized dimension of the self that acts and responds dynamically to the environment.

the “me” - self as object

The internalized social self, composed of the organized set of societal attitudes, norms, and expectations of others assimilated through ongoing interaction.

stages in development of self

preparatory, play, game

preparatory stage

Young children lack an autonomous sense of self and simply imitate the actions, words, and gestures of individuals around them without comprehending shared meaning

play stage

Children begin to take the role of a single other person at a time (role-taking). They pretend to be a significant other (a central figure in their immediate environment, such as a parent or teacher), learning to view the world from another specific vantage point

game stage

Children learn to comprehend and hold multiple roles simultaneously within an organized system. They learn the rules of the entire social dynamic, anticipating how different actors will behave, leading to the internalization of the generalized other

significant other

Specific individuals who exercise a primary, immediate influence on an individual's emotional and social development (mom, dad, mentor)

generalized other

The internalized attitudes, norms, values, and expectations of the broader social community or society as an integrated whole

differential socialization

The process whereby different groups of children or adults (differentiated by sex, race, or class) are socialized according to distinct behavioral scripts, emotional standards, and normative expectations.

mechanism of translation

society translates sex into gender through gender-coded language, color differentiation, targeted marketing, etc creating systematic differences in presentation, interests, and emotional expression

adult socialization

continuous acquisition of new cultural skills, norms, and perspectives when entering new developmental phases, life transitions, or institutions

occupational/professional socialization

process through which individuals absorb the technical vocabulary, ethical values, informal norms, and shared cultural habitus associated with a particular career or profession

cultural capital deficits

Working-class students experienced acute "cultural dissonance," feeling out of place due to unfamiliarity with elite linguistic styles, dress, and institutional networks

stigma management and “passing”

to avoid social marginalization, working class students engage in “passing” → conceal economic roots by purchasing expensive clothing, altering speech patterns, and adopting upper-class mannerisms

ambivalence and co-optation

as students integrated into lucrative law firms, experienced psychological ambivalence and guilt over abandoning social origins and the progressive social-injustice goals that initially motivated them

mortification of self

civilian identity is dismantled by severing outside ties, shaving heads, removing personal clothing, issuing identical uniforms, and enforcing strict obedience

conversion process

re-socialization occurs not by teaching abstract hatred of an enemy, but by cultivating deep primary-group cohesion and unconditional interpersonal solidarity among recruits

collective outcome

recruits are socialized to fight and kill under command, motivated by loyalty to the military unit and fear of failing their peers

family as an agent of socialization

family is the earliest, most durable, and emotionally influential agent of socialization in an individual’s life.

five functions of the family (functionalist)

reproduction, socialization of young, economic support and cooperation, emotional security and affection, regulation of sexual behavior

reproduction

Ensuring the biological replacement and continuation of the societal population

socialization of the young

Teaching cultural rules, values, and communicative competencies to successive generations.

economic support and cooperation

Providing material necessities, food, shelter, and division of economic labor among household members

emotional security and affection

supplying psychological nurturance, intimacy, solidarity, and personal care to safeguard well-being

regulation of sexual behavior

Structuring sexual access and lineage through institutional norms such as the incest taboo

concerted cultivation

middle- and upper-middle class families do this → foster child’s talents, opinions, and skills through scheduled, adult organized extracurriculars; structured but parents play a large role → sense of entitlement where children are more comfortable with authority but may be a little less independent

accomplishment of natural growth

working-class and poor families → parents provide love, food, and safety, leaving child’s development to happen naturally with unstructured play and autonomous time → sense of constraint where children are not as comfortable with authority and more independent

structural changes in american family

increase in divorce rates, increase in cohabitation before marriage, delay of average age of first marriage, decline in national fertility rates, mass entry of women into paid-labor force

cultural transformations of american family

destigmatization of divorce, non-marital childbearing, and premarital cohabitation; acceptance of diverse family forms; shift in focus on emotional and personal fulfillment in relationships

institutional marriage

grounded in economic necessity, duty, reproduction, and strict compliance with patriarchal and community norms

companionate marriage

grounded in clear, complementary gender roles, where marital success was judged by companionship, mutual satisfaction, and efficient family management

individualized marriage

grounded in individual self-development, personal fulfillment, open communication, and flexible gender roles

high regard for marriage

Low-income women do not reject marriage; rather, they hold it in exceptionally high esteem, viewing it as a sacred, permanent commitment that should only be entered into once both partners attain financial independence, stable housing, and interpersonal maturity

decoupling of marriage and motherhood

Because marriage requires an economic and relational threshold that is often unattainable in precarious economic conditions, women separate motherhood from marriage.