Political science exam

Politics

"who gets what, when, and how" through collective decision-making.

Politician

An individual running for or serving in elective office

Political Actor

Any individual or group engaged in political activity, including voters, activists, and politicians.

De Jure Rules

Formally written and officially established laws and policies.

De Facto Rules

Informal policies and unwritten practices that shape actual enforcement and behavior

Three Core Elements of Political Events

Rules (formal and informal guidelines), Reality (objective facts and context), and Choices (contingent actions).

Power

The ability to compel someone to do something they may not have done otherwise.

Sovereignty

The highest form of power with no entity holding authority over a state's territory.

Government

Institutions with recognized legal, legitimate authority to use coercive power in a region.

Country

A defined geographic territory with a sovereign government

State

A sovereign political unit or smaller sub-unit of government within a federal system.

Nation

A population connected by a shared history, culture, and identity.

Authority

Exists when those subject to power recognize that power

Legitimate Authority

Authority used consistently with an institution's established rules and duties.

Bargaining

The process by which parties in conflict negotiate whether and how to change the status quo.

Status Quo (No Agreement)

A bargaining outcome where parties fail to reach an agreement, leaving existing conditions unchanged.

Compromise

A bargaining outcome where both sides yield on their preferences to reach an agreement.

Logrolling

A bargaining outcome involving vote-trading where parties swap support on issues distinct in importance to each side.

Probabilistic Political Science

The principle that political science predictions describe likelihoods rather than deterministic guarantees

Normative Political Science

An approach focusing on theory, logic, and what should be.

Empirical Political Science

An approach focusing on objective evidence and what is to explain and predict phenomena

Consequentialist Reasoning

A normative ethical approach judging political actors by the outcomes or consequences of their actions.

Rules-Based Reasoning

A normative ethical approach identifying moral rules or duties that good political actors should follow.

Virtue-Based Reasoning

A normative ethical approach focusing on the virtues and character of a good political actor.

Four Questions of Political Philosophy

What are human rights? What is social justice? What is the purpose of government? Who should rule?

Inalienable Human Rights

Rights originating inherently from human existence that cannot be taken away

Socially Constructed Human Rights

Rights created by society to justify state intervention against conditions like poverty

Utilitarianism

A social justice theory seeking "the greatest good for the greatest number" using cost-benefit analysis.

Libertarianism

A social justice theory prioritizing individual liberty and minimal state intervention, viewing high welfare taxes as theft.

Marxism

A social justice theory seeking a classless society allocating resources based on need ("from each according to abilities, to each according to needs").

Rawlsian Theory of Justice

A framework where rational individuals behind a "veil of ignorance" design a system prioritizing equal basic rights and aiding the least well-off.

Social Contract Theory

The concept (Hobbes, Locke) that individuals give up some autonomy to government in exchange for security.

Public Goods

Non-excludable services (e.g., roads) provided by government that private markets underprovide (emphasized by Hume

Rational Actor

An actor who weighs options and selects the most efficient means to achieve calculated goals.

Irrational Actor

An actor whose decisions fail to maximize benefits due to unclear goals, imperfect information, or cognitive biases

Strategic Action

Rationally weighing options and selecting the most efficient means to achieve a desired outcome

Expressive Action

Acting primarily to convey or signal one's identity, values, or emotions.

Motivated Reasoning

The human tendency to embrace ideas one wants to believe and reject evidence that contradicts preferred views.

Game Tree

A decision model (e.g., Cuban Missile Crisis) mapping sequential strategic choices and possible outcomes.

General vs. Specific Predictions

The capability to predict broad patterns accurately, whereas predicting precise individual events is much harder.

Ultimatum Game

An economic experiment testing whether decisions change between a single iteration (fairness/emotion) and repeated iterations (strategic cooperation)

Political Ideology

Consciously held ideas about both how political life is structured and how it should be structured.

Socrates

Ancient philosopher who advocated using reason to accept only ideas that withstand critical questioning

Plato's Philosopher-Rulers

The theory that society should be ruled by wise, uncorrupt philosophers guided by reason

Aristotle's Regime Types

Classification based on who rules (one, few, many) and in whose interest (all vs. self): Monarchy/Tyranny, Aristocracy/Oligarchy, Politeia/Democracy.

Hobbes's Social Contract

Argued that the violent state of nature requires individuals to yield liberty to an absolute sovereign (Leviathan).

Locke's Social Contract

Argued that governments exist to protect natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Rousseau's Social Contract

Argued that legitimate governance requires serving the general will through a civic religion.

Classical Liberalism

An 18th-century ideology combining individual liberty, free market capitalism, and limited government

Mill's Harm Principle

The principle that government can only restrict individual liberty to prevent harm to others.

FDR's Role of Government

Advocated state economic intervention to guarantee economic security and real freedom.

Hayek's Role of Government

Argued that state economic regulation empowers government to further regulate lives and leads to decline in living standards.

Herder's Nationalism

View that celebrating national identity promotes international peace.

Fascism

A 20th-century ideology based on extreme militaristic nationalism, totalitarian state control, and the cult of personality.

Contemporary Democratic Liberalism

An ideology balancing market economies, protection of civil liberties, and a social safety net.

Center-Right vs. Center-Left

Center-Right combines conservatism and moderate economic libertarianism; Center-Left uses the welfare state for economic rights of disadvantaged groups.

The New Right

Movement focusing on resisting perceived cultural decline and centralizing power to maintain social order.

Marxism's Rejection of Ideology

Rejects abstract ideology in favor of "scientific socialism" grounded in economic material realities.

Burkeanism's Rejection of Ideology

View that ideologies overestimate human reason and dangerously discard traditions, customs, and prudence.

Religious Extremism's Rejection of Ideology

View that everything outside sacred texts is empty ideology, prioritizing sacred revelation

Legislature

A deliberative body granted authority to create laws to govern a society.

Three Legislative Roles

Lawmaking (proposing/passing bills), representation (advocating for constituents), and oversight (monitoring executive/bureaucracy).

Simple Majority vs. Supermajority

Simple majority requires 50% + 1; supermajority requires higher thresholds (3/5 to 3/4) for major actions

Cloture

A procedure requiring an enhanced supermajority to end debate on legislation.

Single-Member vs. Multimember Districts

Single-member districts elect one representative per area; multimember districts elect multiple representatives.

Descriptive Representation

Representation where elected officials mirror the demographic characteristics of their constituents

Substantive Representation

Representation where elected officials actively champion the policy interests of constituents regardless of identity.

Delegate Model of Representation

Representation where legislators strictly vote according to constituent preferences

Trustee Model of Representation

Representation where legislators use independent judgment to decide what is best for constituents

Proportional Representation (PR)

An electoral system where legislative seats are allocated to political parties based on party vote share from lists.

Plurality (First-Past-the-Post) System

An electoral system where the candidate with the highest number of votes in a district wins

Duverger's Law

The principle that single-member district plurality voting defaults to two competitive parties due to voters avoiding wasted votes.

Unicameral vs. Bicameral Legislature

Unicameral has one chamber (efficient, fewer veto points); Bicameral has two chambers (represents distinct interests, adds veto points, prone to gridlock).

Legislative Oversight Tools

Public committee hearings, parliamentary questions, and budget approvals to monitor the executive and bureaucracy.

Head of State

The symbolic, ceremonial representative of a state (e.g., British Monarch).

Head of Government

The operational political leader holding policy-making power (e.g., Prime Minister).

Presidential System

Features a popularly elected president serving fixed terms, separate from and not responsible to the legislature.

Parliamentary System

Features a prime minister chosen by and responsible to the legislature, with no fixed term

Semi-Presidential System

Features both a president and a prime minister sharing executive power

Formal vs. Informal Presidential Powers

Formal powers are constitutional (vetoes, nominations); informal powers stem from tradition, public prestige, and the bully pulpit.

Bully Pulpit

An informal power allowing a president to speak directly to the public via media to shape policy agendas.

Majority vs. Coalition Government

Majority government occurs when one party holds >50% of seats; Coalition government occurs when multiple parties combine to form a legislative majority.

Vote of No Confidence

A parliamentary vote demonstrating that the legislature no longer supports the prime minister, forcing cabinet removal or new elections.

Weber's Six Characteristics of Bureaucracy

Hierarchical authority, job specialization, formalized rules (SOPs), maintenance of files, impersonality, and professionalization.

Neutral Competence

Maintaining impartiality and professionalism by following set procedures regardless of personal or political loyalties.

Patronage (Spoils System) vs. Merit Civil Service

Patronage grants jobs based on political loyalty; Merit civil service hires based on objective testing, qualifications, and competence.

Iron Triangle vs. Issue Network

Iron triangle is a rigid 3-way tie between committees, agencies, and interest groups; Issue network is a fluid, broader policy coalition involving media, researchers, and interest groups.

Judicial System

A court system that interprets, defends, and applies the law in government's name to peacefully resolve disputes.

Four Principles of Rule of Law

Accountability (no one above law), Just laws (clear, publicized), Open government (fair procedures), and Accessible/Impartial dispute resolution.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to evaluate the constitutionality of actions taken by the legislative or executive branches

Original Jurisdiction

The legal authority of trial courts to hear a case first, examine evidence, and determine facts/verdicts.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The legal authority of higher courts to review decision appeals from original jurisdiction courts concerning law application.

Common Law System

A legal tradition relying on precedent (stare decisis), judge-made law, and an adversarial format

Stare Decisis

The legal principle of adhering to established judicial precedent in future cases ("let the decision stand").

Civil Law System

A legal tradition where judicial decisions are secondary to written statutory codes, using an inquisitorial format.

Religious vs. Customary Law

Religious law derives rules from sacred texts; Customary law derives rules from long-standing community traditions.

Criminal vs. Civil Law

Criminal law handles offenses against the state/society; Civil law handles private disputes between non-governmental parties.

Five Purposes of Punishment

Incapacitation (isolation), Retribution (satisfying revenge), Deterrence (discouraging crime), Restitution (financial compensation), and Rehabilitation (reforming behavior).

Procedural vs. Substantive Due Process

Procedural due process ensures correct legal steps are followed; Substantive due process ensures laws themselves do not violate constitutional rights.

Standing

The legal requirement that a party bringing a lawsuit must show direct, concrete personal injury from the law or action.