Communications Research Methods and Media Theories Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering core concepts in research methods, variable definitions, media theories, history of media effects, study validity, ethical frameworks, ways of knowing, and causation rules based on lecture notes.

Nominal Level of Measurement

The most basic level of measurement, consisting of yes or no questions or unordered categories.

Ordinal Level of Measurement

A level of measurement involving orderable questions where the distance between response options is not necessarily equal.

Interval Level of Measurement

A level of measurement that is orderable with equal distances between values, but lacks a true zero point.

Ratio Level of Measurement

A level of measurement that is orderable, equidistant, and contains a true zero point, usually representing numerical counts.

Concept

A broad, general mental image or abstract idea representing a phenomenon in the real world that serves as a foundational building block of human thought.

Construct

A specialized, intentional concept deliberately adopted, modified, or built for a specific scientific theory or study framework.

Operational Definition

The exact, concrete steps, tools, or procedures used to measure or manipulate a construct in the physical world.

Deductive Reasoning

A top-down logical process that moves from general rules or theoretical premises to a specific, guaranteed conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

A bottom-to-top logical process that moves from specific data and findings back to general knowledge or hypothesis formation.

Theory

A structured set of generalizable concepts, definitions, and propositions that explain how or why a phenomenon occurs.

Research

A systematic process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing data from the real world.

Cultivation Theory

A media theory (also called mean-world theory) proposing that the media an individual consumes directly shapes their perception of the real world.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

A media theory focusing on how and why people actively select specific media based on their individual motivations.

Agenda-Setting Theory

A media theory stating that the public's perception of an issue's importance is dictated by daily media coverage.

Phase 1 of Mass Media Research

The phase of research focusing directly on the physical medium itself.

Phase 2 of Mass Media Research

The phase of research focusing on the uses and users of the medium.

Phase 3 of Mass Media Research

The phase of research focusing on assessing the psychological, social, or behavioral effects of the media.

Phase 4 of Mass Media Research

The phase of research focusing on determining how the medium can be improved.

The Direct Effects Era (1920s–1940s)

An era of media research guided by the Hypodermic Needle or Magic Bullet model, assuming media had immediate, powerful, and uniform influence on a passive audience.

The Limited Effects Era (Late 1930s–1960s)

An era of media research concluding that media effects are minimal and filtered through social ties, personal biases, and opinion leaders.

Two-Step Flow Theory

A theory from the Limited Effects Era proposing that media messages flow from mass media to opinion leaders before reaching wider public groups.

The Moderate to Powerful Effects Era (1970s–1980s)

An era of research that rediscovered strong, long-term cognitive and behavioral consequences of media exposure rather than short-term attitude changes.

The Negotiated and Digital Era (1990s–Present)

An era of media research focusing on how audiences actively construct meaning, use digital networks, and engage with media for personal gratifications.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study successfully establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.

External Validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or applied to other people, settings, times, and real-world situations.

Independent Variable

The factor that a researcher manipulates or controls in an experiment to test its effect on another variable.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or factor measured in an experiment to observe how it responds to changes in the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An outside factor in a study that influences both the independent and dependent variables, creating a false impression of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Control Variable

Any factor kept constant during an experiment to isolate the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Teleological Theory

An ethical framework, also called consequentialism, that judges whether an action is morally right or wrong based entirely on its final outcomes or results.

Utilitarianism

A teleological ethical approach associated with John Stuart Mill that focuses on creating the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people.

Red Media, Blue Media Study

A study by Shanto Iyengar and Kyu S. Hahn demonstrating that news consumers selectively choose outlets that match their political beliefs across political and soft topics.

Method of Tenacity

A way of knowing based on the belief that something is true because it has always been held to be true.

Method of Intuition

A way of knowing based on self-evident propositions or ideas that stand to reason.

Method of Authority

A way of knowing that relies on accepting information as true because a trusted or expert source stated it.

Method of Self-Discovery

A way of knowing acquired independently through personal trial and error.

Scientific Method

A public, objective, empirical, systematic, predictive, and self-correcting approach to acquiring verifiable knowledge.

Representative Sample

A small group that accurately mirrors the key traits, demographics, and proportions of a larger target population.

Probability Sampling

A selection method using random sampling where every population member has a known, non-zero chance of selection, eliminating researcher bias.

Non-Probability Sampling

A selection technique relying on non-random criteria such as convenience or judgment, which carries a high risk of bias and limits generalizability.

Correlation

A statistical relationship where two or more variables change together in a predictable pattern without proving direct cause.

Causation

A relationship in which a change in one specific variable directly produces a change in another variable.

Temporal Precedence

A necessary step in proving causation requiring that the cause occurs before the effect in time.

Elimination of Alternative Explanations (Non-Spuriousness)

A necessary step in proving causation requiring proof that no third or confounding variable is causing both variables to change.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Methodologies 

• Face-to-Face / Verbal Communication

• Advantages:

  • Allows immediate feedback so you can clear up confusion right away.

  • Uses body language and tone to add emotion and build trust. 

• Disadvantages:

  • Leaves no written record or proof of what was said.

  • Can be hard to schedule or manage with large groups.

• Written / Digital Communication (Email, Text, Letters)

  • Advantages:

1. Provides a clear written record for future reference and legal proof.

2. Offers convenience and speed to reach people across long distances anytime.

• Disadvantages:

3. Lacks tone and body language, which leads to frequent misinterpretations.

The Process of Conducting a Survey

• Define Objectives and Research Questions: Decide what information you need and the goals of your study.

• Choose the Survey Design: Select a cross-sectional (one-time) or longitudinal (over time) approach.

• Select the Sample: Target a representative subset of your population to minimize error.

• Design the Questionnaire: Write clear, unbiased closed-ended or open-ended questions.

• Collect Data: Distribute the survey via digital tools, mail, phone, or in-person interviews.

• Clean and Analyze Data: Remove incomplete responses, then use statistical software for numbers or thematic grouping for text.

• Report Results: Interpret findings and write up conclusions

Best Survey Practices

• Define clear goals: Know your exact research objective before writing any questions.

• Keep it short: Aim for a completion time under 5 to 7 minutes to prevent user drop-off.

• Use a logical order: Group questions by topic and use the funnel technique—start with easy, general questions and put sensitive or open-ended items at the end.

• Pilot test: Test the survey with a small group first to catch confusing wording and check the completion time.

• Use simple language: Write at an accessible grade level (around 6th grade) and avoid jargon or acronyms.

• Ask one thing at a time: Avoid double-barreled questions that combine two different ideas into a single question.

• Remain neutral: Do not use leading or emotional phrasing that pushes respondents toward a specific answer.