Classical and Hellenistic Greek History, Philosophy, and Art

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering Persian Wars, Athenian democracy, Greek drama, philosophy, and Classical through Hellenistic architecture and sculpture.

Battle of Marathon

A major conflict in $490\text{ BCE}$ located in Attica where Athenian and Plataean forces, led by Miltiades, defeated the Persian army sent by King Darius I, preserving Greek autonomy.

Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis

Two pivotal $480\text{ BCE}$ engagements of the Persian Wars: Thermopylae in central Greece, where King Xerxes I's Persian forces defeated Leonidas and his Greek defenders; and Salamis, a decisive Greek naval victory near Athens orchestrated by Themistocles.

Three Institutions of Athenian Democracy

The three core governing bodies of Classical Athens: the Ekklesia (citizen Assembly that debated and decided major policies, war, and foreign treaties), the Boule (Council of $500$ that prepared the Assembly agenda and managed daily governance), and the Dikasteria (citizen jury courts that judged legal disputes and held magistrates accountable).

Sortition

The democratic mechanism of appointing citizens to public offices, the Boule, and the Dikasteria by lottery rather than competitive election, expanded after Cleisthenes' reforms of $508/507\text{ BCE}$ to prevent oligarchy.

Athenian Direct Democracy

A form of self-government where qualified adult male citizens voted directly on policies within a city-state, distinct from the modern United States representative constitutional republic with elected lawmakers, checks and balances under the 1787 Constitution, and broader citizenship voting rights.

Ostracism

An Athenian political procedure, first documented in $488/487\text{ BCE}$, wherein citizens inscribed a name onto a broken pottery shard (ostrakon) to vote to banish a prominent figure for $10$ years to suppress potential tyranny; the banished citizen retained both property and citizenship.

Dithyramb and Thespis

Foundational elements of Greek tragedy in late sixth-century BCE Athens honoring Dionysus at the City Dionysia: the dithyramb was a ritual choral hymn from which dramatic performance arose, and Thespis is traditionally identified as the first performer to step out from the chorus as an independent actor, winning a tragic contest around $534\text{ BCE}$.

Classical Tragedians

The three fifth-century BCE Athenian playwrights who explored ethical duty, responsibility, and hubris (arrogant overstepping): Aeschylus (The Persians, $472\text{ BCE}$, dramatizing the imperial fall of Xerxes), Sophocles (Antigone, c. $441\text{ BCE}$, contrasting divine duty with Creon's civil decree), and Euripides (Medea, $431\text{ BCE}$, examining betrayal and the status of women and foreigners).

Plato's Theory of Forms

The philosophical doctrine maintaining that the true nature of reality resides in perfect, immutable, eternal Forms beyond the physical world, which can only be reached through reason because sensory perception is inherently unstable.

Aristotelian Form and Matter

Aristotle's metaphysical principle asserting that form exists immanently within concrete material objects rather than in a separate transcendent realm, meaning substance is a composite of matter and form understood through empirical observation and logical deduction.

Hellenization and the Diadochi

The historical expansion of Greek culture following the death of Alexander of Macedon in Babylon in $323\text{ BCE}$, where his empire was divided among successor generals (Diadochi), leading to large dynasties (such as the Ptolemies in Egypt and Seleucids in western Asia) and the proliferation of Koine Greek.

Hellenistic Period

The chronological era extending from the death of Alexander the Great in $323\text{ BCE}$ to the Battle of Actium and the Roman annexation of Egypt in $31/30\text{ BCE}$, noted for cosmopolitan cultural exchange, royal patronage, and urban hubs such as Alexandria and Pergamon.

Artistic Idealism

An aesthetic tradition prominent in Classical Greece (c. $480\text{–}323\text{ BCE}$) that portrayed harmonious, perfected human figures characterized by youthful vigor, emotional restraint, and contrapposto (weight shift), codified by Polykleitos in his Doryphoros canon (c. $450\text{–}440\text{ BCE}$).

Artistic Realism

An artistic tendency that gained prominence during the Hellenistic era (post-$323\text{ BCE}$) focusing on particularized individuals, physical aging, heightened emotional expression, bodily vulnerability, and everyday genre scenes.

Stoicism

A Hellenistic philosophical school founded in Athens around $300\text{ BCE}$ by Zeno of Citium, maintaining that virtue is the sole true good, and counseling adherents to live in harmony with reason and nature, govern their personal judgments, and fulfill their civic duties.

Epicureanism

A Hellenistic philosophical school established in Athens in $306\text{ BCE}$ by Epicurus, which identified stable, undisturbed pleasure as the highest good, achieved through simple living, friendship, ataraxia (mental tranquility), aponia (freedom from physical pain), and atomism.

Logos (Philo of Alexandria)

The divine Word or Reason formulated by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. $20\text{ BCE} \text{ to } 40\text{–}50\text{ CE}$), serving as the mediating agency through which a transcendent, incorporeal God structures and connects with the created cosmos.

Doric Order

An architectural order originating in the late 7th century BCE Archaic period, marked by grooved columns standing directly on the stylobate without bases, unadorned rounded capitals, and an entablature featuring an architrave beneath an alternating frieze of triglyphs and metopes.

Ionic Order

An architectural order originating during the 6th century BCE Archaic period, identified by fluted column shafts supported by molded bases, capitals detailed with spiraling scroll motifs (volutes), and a continuous sculpted frieze band.

Corinthian Order

A Classical architectural order developed in the late 5th century BCE, characterized by fluted columns with bases and bell-shaped capitals decorated with carved acanthus leaves, prominently featured on the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (completed in $131\text{ CE}$ under Hadrian).

Parthenon

The principal Classical Greek temple on the Athenian Acropolis, built between $447\text{ and } 432\text{ BCE}$ by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates, integrating a Doric exterior colonnade with a continuous Ionic interior frieze to project Athenian prestige, religious devotion, and civic power.

Athena Parthenos

The lost monumental Classical cult statue sculpted by Pheidias around $438\text{ BCE}$ for the Parthenon interior, fabricated using chryselephantine (gold and ivory) and depicting the armed goddess holding a spear, shield, serpent, and Nike.

Laocoön and His Sons

A famous Hellenistic marble sculpture (c. $40\text{–}30\text{ BCE}$) showing the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons being strangled by sea serpents, serving as a primary illustration of pathos through serpentine twisting, strained muscles, and raw agony.

Alkyoneus (Pergamon Altar)

A high-relief Hellenistic sculpture (c. $180\text{–}160\text{ BCE}$) from the Gigantomachy frieze on the Great Altar of Pergamon, presenting the Giant Alkyoneus with an upturned head, parted lips, and deeply undercut hair to project theatrical distress and dynastic victory.

Old Drunkard

A Hellenistic marble statue (original c. $200\text{ BCE}$, preserved in Roman copies) showing an elderly, seated woman clutching a wine jug (lagynos), serving as a quintessential model of Hellenistic realism through its candid depiction of wrinkles, a hollow neck, and non-heroic subject matter.

Persian Wars: Battles, Dates, Locations, and Winners

• Marathon ($490\text{ BCE}$, Attica): Greek victory (Athens & Plataea led by Miltiades).

• Thermopylae ($480\text{ BCE}$, Central Greece): Persian victory over King Leonidas and Greek defenders.

• Salamis ($480\text{ BCE}$, near Athens): Decisive Greek naval victory led by Themistocles.

• Plataea & Mycale ($479\text{ BCE}$): Final Greek land and naval victories.

• Persian Kings: Darius I ($490\text{ BCE}$) and Xerxes I ($480\text{ BCE}$).

Three Branches of Athenian Democracy

• Ekklesia (Assembly): Male citizens debated and voted directly on major laws, war, and treaties.

• Boule (Council of $500$): Prepared the Assembly's agenda and handled daily administration.

• Dikasteria (Courts): Citizen juries tried legal cases and held public officials accountable.

• Selection: Used sortition (lottery) rather than elections to prevent oligarchy.

Athenian vs. American Democracy

• System: Athens was a direct democracy (citizens voted on laws); the U.S. is a representative republic (citizens elect lawmakers).

• Voter Base: Athens allowed adult male citizens only; the U.S. grants broad adult citizenship voting rights.

• Selection: Athens used sortition/lottery for most offices; the U.S. uses elections and appointments.

• Scale: Athens was an individual city-state; the U.S. is a federal system with three branches and checks and balances.

Ostracism

• Definition: Annual vote to banish a prominent citizen for $10\text{ years}$ without criminal charges.

• Method: Name scratched onto broken pottery shards (ostraka).

• Purpose: Prevent tyranny and calm political rivalry.

• Status: The exile kept all personal property and citizenship rights.

Origins of Greek Tragedy

• When & Where: Late $6\text{th}\text{ century BCE}$ in Athens; blossomed during the $5\text{th}\text{ century BCE}$.
• Religious Context: Began at festivals honoring Dionysus, especially the City Dionysia.
• Roots: Developed from choral hymns called dithyrambs.
• Thespis: First actor to step out from the chorus to speak dialogue (c. $534\text{ BCE}$).

Three Tragedians: Playwright, Famous Play, and Core Issue

• Aeschylus: The Persians ($472\text{ BCE}$); hubris (arrogance) and the fall of Xerxes after Salamis.
• Sophocles: Antigone (c. $441\text{ BCE}$); conflict between divine religious duty and state civil law.
• Euripides: Medea ($431\text{ BCE}$); emotional betrayal and the marginalized status of women and foreigners.

Plato vs. Aristotle: Theories of Reality

• Plato: Ultimate reality exists in perfect, immutable Forms beyond the physical world; accessible only by reason, not unreliable senses.
• Aristotle: Form exists within concrete physical things (substance = matter + form); reality is discovered through sensory observation and logic.

Consequences of Alexander's Conquests

• Successor Kingdoms: After Alexander's death ($323\text{ BCE}$), his empire was split among generals (Diadochi), creating large dynasties (Ptolemies in Egypt, Seleucids in Asia).
• Koine Greek: Became the universal language for administration and commerce.
• Hellenization: Greek culture spread and blended with Mediterranean and Near Eastern traditions.

Artistic and Philosophical Idealism

• Definition: Portrayal of perfected human types with youth, harmony, proportion, and emotional calm.
• Era & Cause: Classical Greece (c. $480\text{–}323\text{ BCE}$); driven by athletic ideals, civic pride, and search for rational order.
• Impact: Produced the contrapposto canon in art (Polykleitos' Doryphoros) and Plato's theory of Forms in philosophy.

Artistic Realism

• Definition: Depiction of individualized bodies, physical aging, heightened emotion, and everyday non-heroic activities.
• Era & Cause: Hellenistic era (post-$323\text{ BCE}$); spurred by diverse patrons and cosmopolitan cities.
• Impact: Expanded subjects to include children, the elderly, agony, and vulnerability (e.g., Old Drunkard, Boy with a Goose).

Meaning of 'Hellenistic' and Examples

• Meaning: The wider Greek-influenced world of cultural exchange from Alexander's death ($323\text{ BCE}$) to the Roman conquest of Egypt ($31/30\text{ BCE}$).

• Alexandria (Egypt): Cosmopolitan trade, scholarship, and multicultural learning.

• Pergamon (Asia Minor): Royal patronage, monumental architecture, and dramatic theatrical art.

Two Core Characteristics of Hellenistic Philosophical Schools

• Individualism: Direct focus on how an individual person can achieve inner tranquility and flourishing (eudaimonia).

• Cosmopolitanism: Viewing oneself as a citizen of a broader world community rather than just one city-state.

Stoicism vs. Epicureanism

• Stoicism (Zeno, c. $300\text{ BCE}$): Virtue is the only true good; live according to reason and nature, govern internal judgments, accept fate, and fulfill civic duty.

• Epicureanism (Epicurus, $306\text{ BCE}$): Tranquil pleasure is the highest good; achieve mental peace (ataraxia) and absence of pain (aponia) through simple living, friendship, and freedom from fear.

Doric Order

• Date: Late $7\text{th}\text{ century BCE}$ (Archaic origin).
• Main Features: Columns rest directly on the floor with no bases; plain, rounded capitals; entablature features alternating triglyphs and metopes.

Ionic Order

• Date: $6\text{th}\text{ century BCE}$ (Archaic origin).
• Main Features: Column shafts have molded bases; capitals feature distinct spiraling scroll volutes; frieze is a continuous sculpted band.

Corinthian Order

• Date: Late $5\text{th}\text{ century BCE}$ (Classical origin; finished on Temple of Olympian Zeus in $131\text{ CE}$).
• Main Features: Columns have molded bases and bell-shaped capitals decorated with carved acanthus leaves.

Red-Figure Calyx-Krater (Euphronios: Herakles and Antaios)

• Date: c. $515\text{–}510\text{ BCE}$ (Late Archaic).
• Main Features: Red-orange clay figures outlined against black slip with painted anatomical details; used for mixing water and wine.

Idealized Male Head

• Date: Classical style (exact date and identity unconfirmed).
• Main Features: Youthful, unblemished face, orderly curled hair, and an expression of serene emotional calm.

The Parthenon

• Date: $447\text{–}432\text{ BCE}$ (Classical Athens).
• Main Features: Temple to Athena on the Acropolis designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates; Doric exterior colonnade with a continuous interior Ionic frieze.

Parthenon Metope: Lapith and Centaur

• Date: c. $447\text{–}438\text{ BCE}$ (Classical).
• Main Features: Square relief panel with strong high-relief projection; depicts mythic battle symbolizing Greek order over barbarian disorder.

Parthenon Frieze: Panathenaic Procession

• Date: c. $443\text{–}438\text{ BCE}$ (Classical).
• Main Features: Continuous low-relief band showing overlapping horsemen and civic procession honoring Athena.

Parthenon East Pediment: Reclining Goddesses

• Date: c. $438\text{–}432\text{ BCE}$ (Classical).
• Main Features: Sculpted figures fitted to a triangular gable corner; 'wet drapery' clings to bodies revealing realistic anatomy underneath.

Athena Parthenos (Cult Statue)

• Date: Original c. $438\text{ BCE}$ (Classical) by Pheidias.
• Main Features: Colossal gold and ivory (chryselephantine) statue holding a spear, shield, serpent, and winged victory (Nike).

Laocoön and His Sons

• Date: c. $40\text{–}30\text{ BCE}$ (Hellenistic tradition).
• Main Features: Trojan priest and sons constricted by sea serpents; dynamic twisting bodies, strained muscles, and intense pathos/drama.

Alkyoneus (Pergamon Altar Frieze)

• Date: c. $180\text{–}160\text{ BCE}$ (Hellenistic).
• Main Features: High-relief Giant with an upturned head, parted lips, and deep undercut hair displaying extreme theatrical agony.

Venus de Milo (Aphrodite of Melos)

• Date: c. $150\text{–}125\text{ BCE}$ (Hellenistic).
• Main Features: Missing arms, draped lower body, dynamic S-curve twist; retains Classical idealism with a calm facial expression.

Boy with a Goose

• Date: c. $220\text{ BCE}$ prototype (Hellenistic).

• Main Features: Chubby young toddler playfully wrestling a goose; everyday genre subject highlighting childhood.

Old Drunkard

• Date: c. $200\text{ BCE}$ original (Hellenistic).

• Main Features: Seated elderly woman clutching a wine jug (lagynos); emphasizes realistic facial wrinkles, a hollow neck, and non-heroic subject matter.

Barberini Faun (Sleeping Satyr)

• Date: c. $220\text{ BCE}$ (Hellenistic tradition).

• Main Features: Muscular mythical follower of Dionysus asleep with an arm behind his head; relaxed, unguarded, and asymmetrical pose.