School

What historical and social factors contributed to the development of Canada's public education system?

Political unrest, concerns about national unity and social order, industrialization, urbanization and child-labour laws encouraged publicly funded and compulsory education.

Why did Canadian reformers advocate universal public schooling?

To promote national unity and shared civic values through publicly funded schools, centralized curricula, standardized teacher training and broader access across social classes.

How did secondary education develop in Canada?

It developed during the 1850s and 1860s, combining academic subjects with vocational and technical training.

How did Canadian secondary education change throughout the twentieth century?

Early schools emphasized industry and regimented instruction; later reforms introduced flexible curricula, back-to-basics approaches, accountability and standardized performance monitoring.

What was the purpose and impact of Canada's residential school system?

It attempted to assimilate Indigenous children by separating them from families and suppressing Indigenous cultures and languages, causing lasting harm and mistrust.

How is Canada's education system governed?

It is decentralized: provincial and territorial governments control education, while local school boards oversee implementation and administration.

What is standards-based reform, and how does it work?

Policies intended to improve achievement by setting predetermined educational standards and measuring school and student performance through standardized assessments.

What is the Pan-Canadian Assessment Program (PCAP)?

A national assessment measuring Grade 8 students' achievement in reading, mathematics and science.

What educational priorities have shaped Canadian reforms since the 1990s?

Global economic competitiveness, technology skills, communication, collaboration, cross-curricular competencies, and more equitable and inclusive curricula.

What were major criticisms of the American No Child Left Behind Act?

It encouraged teaching to the test, narrowed learning, increased pressure to manipulate results and could disadvantage or push out low-performing students. It was an American policy, not a Canadian equivalent.

How can school size and class size affect adolescent development?

Larger schools offer more courses and activities but may have weaker cohesion and participation. Smaller schools can promote belonging and leadership; smaller classes allow more individualized instruction, but size alone does not guarantee achievement.

What are junior high schools and middle schools?

Junior high schools generally serve Grades 7–8 or 7–9; middle schools combine these grades with younger students.

How can school transitions affect adolescents, and who may struggle most?

Transitions may temporarily reduce motivation, engagement, grades and self-image. Students with existing academic or psychosocial difficulties, limited support or difficulty adjusting to less personal environments may struggle more.

What helps adolescents adjust to school transitions?

Supportive parents, teachers and peers; school connectedness; fair rules; autonomy; positive relationships and a supportive school climate.

What is an educational achievement gap?

A difference in academic performance or educational outcomes between groups of students.

How do poverty, socioeconomic status and immigration contribute to educational gaps?

Poverty limits school readiness, nutrition, learning resources and educational opportunities. Some immigrant achievement differences reflect economic hardship and language barriers; after accounting for SES, first- and second-generation immigrant students may perform as well as or better than non-immigrant peers.

Why may Indigenous students experience educational disparities, and how can schools respond?

Historical marginalization, residential schools, discrimination and culturally unresponsive education can undermine trust and achievement. Culturally relevant curricula and the Four Rs—responsibility, respect, reciprocity and relevance—can support inclusion.

What gender-related achievement patterns are commonly observed?

Girls tend to outperform boys in reading, while boys tend to outperform girls in mathematics; girls also remain underrepresented in some STEM fields.

What is tracking or ability grouping?

Separating students into different academic classes or pathways based on perceived ability or achievement.

What are the potential benefits and criticisms of tracking?

It can allow instruction to match students' abilities, but lower-track students may receive poorer instruction, fewer challenging opportunities and lower expectations. Placements can be difficult to change and reinforce inequality.

How does tracking generally affect students in different tracks?

It tends to benefit high-track students, disadvantage low-track students and have little effect on students in the middle. Disadvantaged students may be disproportionately placed in lower tracks.

What is school climate?

The overall quality of school life, including its philosophy, practices, safety, expectations and student-student and student-teacher relationships.

What classroom climate best supports adolescent development?

An authoritative environment combining high teacher support with clear structure, expectations and consistent rules.

How do authoritarian, permissive and indifferent classroom environments differ from authoritative ones?

Authoritarian classrooms emphasize control without sufficient support; permissive or indifferent classrooms lack adequate structure and clear expectations. Authoritative classrooms balance support and structure.

How do positive teacher-student relationships affect adolescents?

They promote school belonging, engagement, achievement, positive future expectations and psychological well-being.

What school practices support positive climate and achievement?

Clear feedback, effective lesson time, appropriate praise, student participation, cooperation, fair rules and consistent expectations.

How can a positive school climate protect adolescents, and what contributes to bullying?

A positive climate can buffer poverty and community violence. Disorder, harsh or unsupportive teachers, unfairness and disrespect are associated with greater bullying.

How can schools improve climate and reduce bullying?

Use evidence-based anti-bullying programs, train staff, establish reporting procedures, investigate incidents and support victims and students who bully.

What are teacher expectations, and how can they influence performance?

Teachers' beliefs about students' abilities and potential can shape how they treat, evaluate and support students.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in education?

Teacher expectations influence their treatment of students, potentially causing students' performance to align with those expectations.

How can low expectations, stereotypes and teacher bias affect students?

They can reduce opportunities, motivation, confidence and achievement. Ethnicity or SES stereotypes may lead teachers to underestimate abilities or interpret similar behaviour differently, reinforcing inequality.

How can school violence affect adolescents?

Experiencing or witnessing violence can undermine safety and belonging, reduce attendance and engagement, and contribute to academic and psychosocial difficulties.

What are zero-tolerance policies, and what are their consequences?

Strict disciplinary policies imposing severe consequences such as suspension, expulsion or police referral. They can increase disengagement, dropout, reduced post-secondary completion and justice-system contact.

How can zero-tolerance policies contribute to racial inequality?

Black students experience disproportionate suspension and expulsion and may face unfair or inconsistent disciplinary practices.

What approaches are preferable to zero-tolerance policies?

Positive school climate and connectedness, clearly defined misconduct, staff training and reserving exclusionary discipline for serious behaviour.

What is the relationship between school security measures and academic achievement?

Measures such as metal detectors and cameras have not demonstrated academic benefits and may negatively affect achievement.

How do post-secondary-bound and workforce-bound adolescents differ?

Post-secondary-bound adolescents continue to college or university; workforce-bound adolescents enter employment after high school.

What challenges can adolescents face when transitioning to post-secondary education?

Larger and less personal environments, relocation, financial pressure, changes in living arrangements and changes in relationships.

Why may workforce-bound adolescents be disadvantaged by high schools?

Schools may prioritize university preparation and counselling, leaving workforce-bound students less prepared for employment.

Why are vocational and technical education important?

They prepare adolescents for employment and skilled trades, address labour shortages and provide alternatives to university pathways.

What characterizes an effective school that supports achievement?

A shared commitment to learning, qualified and committed teachers, supportive leadership, family and community involvement, active learning, high expectations and an orderly but supportive environment.

How do effective schools promote achievement and future opportunities?

They prioritize intellectual development, effective instruction, participation, critical thinking and connections with families, colleges, universities and employers.

What is ADHD?

A neurodevelopmental disorder involving persistent inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

What are the three main symptom dimensions of ADHD?

Inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity.

What are examples of ADHD symptoms?

Inattention: distractibility, careless mistakes, losing items and forgetfulness. Hyperactivity/impulsivity: fidgeting, excessive talking, leaving one's seat, difficulty waiting and blurting out answers.

What are the main diagnostic requirements for ADHD?

Symptoms persist for at least six months, occur in at least two settings, begin before age 12 and interfere with social, academic or occupational functioning.

How is ADHD assessed, and why are rating scales insufficient on their own?

Clinical assessment includes interviews with parents or caregivers and information from other settings, such as teacher reports and rating scales. Scales measure symptoms but cannot independently establish diagnosis.

What is the SNAP-IV-26?

A rating scale assessing ADHD symptoms, including inattention and hyperactivity, as well as oppositional defiant symptoms.

What are ADHD mimics and comorbidities?

Mimics are conditions that resemble ADHD, such as sleep or learning disorders. Comorbidities occur alongside ADHD, such as anxiety, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, autism spectrum disorder and learning disorders.

What are the three ADHD presentations?

Predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive and combined.

How do the three ADHD presentations differ?

Inattentive: mainly distractibility, forgetfulness and difficulty sustaining attention. Hyperactive-impulsive: mainly restlessness and impulsivity. Combined: significant symptoms of both groups.

How can ADHD presentation change across development?

Symptom patterns and severity vary. Hyperactive symptoms may become less prominent while inattentive difficulties persist; ADHD can continue into adolescence and adulthood.

What is delayed cortical maturation in ADHD?

Some cortical regions, particularly frontal and parietal regions, follow a similar developmental trajectory to typical development but mature later.

Why is ADHD not considered a disorder of only one brain region?

It involves differences in the functioning and coordination of multiple brain networks.

Which three brain networks are implicated in ADHD?

Fronto-striatal control network, fronto-parietal attention network and default mode network (DMN).

What are the functions of the fronto-striatal and fronto-parietal networks?

Fronto-striatal: cognitive control and staying on task. Fronto-parietal: directing and regulating attention.

What is the default mode network, and what is the interference hypothesis?

The DMN is associated with internally directed thought and rest. The interference hypothesis proposes that it is not adequately suppressed during tasks, allowing internal thoughts to disrupt attention and goal-directed behaviour.

What is the dopamine hypothesis of ADHD?

It links ADHD-related difficulties to differences in dopamine functioning, which contributes to attention, motivation, cognition and reward processing.

What are the three dopamine pathways and their functions?

Mesolimbic: reward. Mesocortical: cognition. Mesostriatal: movement.

How can increased dopamine-transporter activity affect dopamine signalling?

Dopamine is cleared from the synapse more quickly, reducing its availability for signalling.

Why is dopamine's relationship with ADHD more complex than simply having too little dopamine?

Dopamine and norepinephrine activity in the prefrontal cortex follows an inverted-U pattern: both too little and too much activity can impair functioning.

What is executive functioning, and how can difficulties affect adolescents with ADHD?

Higher-level processes supporting working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, planning and goal-directed behaviour. Difficulties can impair attention regulation, organization, remembering information and impulse control.

How do bottom-up and top-down processing differ, and how can this relate to ADHD?

Bottom-up processing is driven by incoming stimuli; top-down processing is guided by goals, expectations and prior knowledge. Difficulties with top-down processing can make it harder to maintain goals and ignore distractions.

What contributes to ADHD risk?

A combination of genetic and environmental factors. ADHD is highly heritable and polygenic, meaning many genes contribute rather than one single gene.

What environmental factors are associated with ADHD risk?

Prematurity, low birth weight, prenatal exposure to alcohol or nicotine, and early adversity or trauma. Environmental influences may interact with genetic vulnerability.

What are the three broad approaches to ADHD intervention?

Medication, behavioural interventions and school supports.

How do stimulant medications help manage ADHD symptoms?

They increase the availability of dopamine and/or norepinephrine, improving aspects of attention and behavioural regulation.

What are the two main stimulant medication groups used for ADHD?

Methylphenidates, such as Ritalin, and amphetamines, such as Adderall.

How do methylphenidates and amphetamines affect neurotransmitters differently?

Methylphenidates block dopamine and norepinephrine transporters, increasing their availability in the synapse. Amphetamines enter presynaptic terminals and promote additional dopamine release.

What behavioural interventions can support adolescents with ADHD?

Parent-training programs, structured routines, classroom management and reinforcement systems.

What school supports can help adolescents with ADHD?

Classroom accommodations, clear structure, reduced distractions, and help with organization and task completion.

Why should ADHD interventions be individualized?

Symptoms, impairment and developmental needs vary across individuals and change over time, so treatment should match the person's age and specific difficulties.