UVA Intro to Sociology Midterm 1 Exam Review

What does sociology cover as a field?

Sociology examines how everyday topics are shaped by social and historical forces.

What is the sociological imagination?

The sociological imagination is the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences.

How did sociology originate?

Sociology originated from the need to understand social order and change, influenced by the works of early theorists.

What is social construction?

Social construction refers to an idea or practice that a group of people agrees exists and is maintained over time.

Give an example of social construction.

Gender is an example of social construction, where societal norms dictate behaviors associated with being male or female.

What is social order?

Social order refers to the various ways society is organized to maintain stability, such as norms and values that guide behavior.

What does Rational Choice Theory propose?

Rational Choice Theory suggests that individuals make decisions based on a rational calculation of maximizing benefits.

What is socialization?

Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms and values of their society.

How does agency relate to structure in sociology?

Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently, while structure refers to the social forces that influence behavior.

What is the significance of Alexis de Tocqueville's study?

Tocqueville's study, 'Democracy in America,' explored the conditions of democracy and civic engagement in the U.S.

Who is Auguste Comte and what did he contribute to sociology?

Auguste Comte is known for advocating the application of the scientific method to the study of society.

What are social facts according to Émile Durkheim?

Social facts are aspects of social life that shape individual actions and can be studied scientifically.

What is social constraint?

Social constraint is the influence of groups and societies on individual behavior, as described by Durkheim.

Define division of labor.

Division of labor is the specialization of work tasks in a production system, leading to increased complexity in industrial societies.

What is organic solidarity?

Organic solidarity is the social cohesion resulting from the interdependence of individuals in a complex society.

How does globalization impact sociology?

Globalization affects how we perceive ourselves and others through the development of worldwide social and economic relationships.

What role do norms play in social order?

Norms are internalized through socialization and help maintain social order by guiding behavior.

What is the relationship between social change and sociology?

Sociologists study how individuals adapt to social transformations and the implications of these changes on society.

How does the sociological imagination help us understand our lives?

It allows individuals to think beyond their daily routines and consider the broader social contexts influencing their experiences.

What is anomie according to Émile Durkheim?

Anomie refers to a situation where social norms lose their hold over individual behavior, often due to rapid social changes.

How does Durkheim link anomie to modern social difficulties?

Durkheim argues that rapid and intense changes in the modern world lead to major social difficulties linked to anomie.

What is the materialist conception of history proposed by Karl Marx?

It is the view that material or economic factors play a prime role in determining historical change, rather than ideas or values.

Define capitalism as described by Karl Marx.

Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of wealth, which is invested to produce profit.

What are the two main classes in Marx's analysis of capitalism?

The ruling class (capitalists who own production means) and the working class (wage workers who must find employment).

What does Marx argue about conflict in capitalism?

Marx argues that capitalism is a class system where conflict between the ruling and working classes is inevitable.

How did Max Weber's view of social change differ from Marx's?

Weber believed that ideas and values are just as important as economic factors in driving social change.

What is bureaucracy according to Max Weber?

Bureaucracy is an organization characterized by a clear hierarchy of authority, written rules, and full-time salaried officials.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucracy?

Bureaucracy enables efficient organization but can hinder democratic participation as decisions are made by experts without consulting affected individuals.

Who was W. E. B. Du Bois and what was his significance?

Du Bois was the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard and a founding member of the NAACP, known for his concept of 'double consciousness.'

What does double consciousness refer to?

It describes the identity struggle of African Americans who see themselves through the eyes of others in a racially divided society.

What is the 'problem of the color line' according to Du Bois?

The problem of the twentieth century is the issue of race relations and the division between races.

What is rationalization as defined by Max Weber?

Rationalization is the process by which modes of precise calculation and organization dominate the social world.

What is symbolic interactionism?

A theoretical approach developed by George Herbert Mead that emphasizes the role of symbols and language in human interaction.

What does conflict theory emphasize in sociology?

Conflict theory emphasizes the role of political and economic power and oppression in maintaining the social order.

What is microsociology?

The study of human behavior in the context of face-to-face interactions.

What is macrosociology?

The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems.

How does sociology help us understand the social world?

Sociology allows us to see the social world from multiple perspectives and assess public policy results.

What skills does sociology provide for career development?

Sociology equips individuals with research skills and a sociological perspective on social problems, opening various career opportunities.

What is the significance of diversity in theoretical thinking in sociology?

Diversity in theoretical thinking enriches research and stimulates creativity essential for sociological progress.

Quantitative methods

Approaches to sociological research that draw on objective and statistical data and often focus on documenting trends, comparing subgroups, or exploring correlations.

Qualitative methods

Approaches to sociological research that often rely on personal and/or collective interviews, accounts, or observations of a person or situation.

Define the research problem

All research starts with a research problem; the best sociological research begins with problems that are also puzzles.

Review the literature

Once a research problem is identified, the sociologist must review related research to see if previous researchers have spotted the same puzzle and how they have tried to solve it.

Make the problem precise

This stage involves clearly formulating the research problem and includes hypotheses, which are ideas or educated guesses about a given state of affairs, put forward as bases for empirical testing.

Work out a design

The researcher decides how to collect the research materials, choosing from a range of methods based on the study objectives and the aspects of behavior under study.

Carry out the research

Researchers carry out the plan developed in the previous step, and unforeseen practical difficulties may arise that force the researcher to rethink their initial strategy.

Interpret the results

Once the information has been gathered, the researcher must analyze the data, track trends, and test hypotheses, interpreting results to tell a clear story that addresses the research puzzle.

Report the findings

The research report provides an account of the research question, methods, findings, and implications for social theory, public policy, or practice, often identifying unanswered questions for further research.

Robert Park

A sociologist who wanted to make social research more scientific, believing theories should be based on the careful accumulation of evidence about people's lives.

William Ogburn

A sociologist who wanted to make social research more like the natural sciences by measuring things quantitatively, believing anything measurable could be studied.

Research methods

The diverse methods of investigation used to gather empirical (factual) material.

Fieldwork

A commonly used research method in sociology involving participant observation.

Survey methods

A commonly used research method in sociology that involves gathering data through questionnaires or interviews.

Ethnography

the firsthand study of people using observation, in-depth interviewing, or both

Participant observation

a method of research used in sociology and anthropology in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied

Advantages of Ethnography

Successful ethnography provides rich information on the behavior of people in groups and on how these people understand their own behavior.

Limitations of Ethnography

Only small groups can be studied, and it may be difficult for researchers to remain objective.

Survey

a method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied

Population

the people who are the focus of social research

Survey research

produces information less detailed than that produced by ethnography, but they can be generalized to the population as a whole.

Standardized questions

only a fixed range of responses is possible for the subject, making information easy to count and compare, but potentially restrictive or misleading.

Open-ended questions

provide more detailed information, but responses may be difficult to compare statistically.

Pilot study

a trial run in survey research

Sample

a small proportion of a larger population

Representative sample

a sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population

Sampling

studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole

Random sampling

a sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included

Advantages of Surveys

Responses can be more easily quantified and analyzed than material from most other research methods; large numbers of people can be studied.

Disadvantages of Surveys

Results may not present the whole picture; for example, many people do not respond, and some published studies are based on partial samples.

Experiment

a research method by which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in a naturally occurring setting

Experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives some special attention based on the researcher's theory

Control group

The group that does not receive special attention.

Advantages of Experiments

Researchers can test a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions established by the researcher.

Disadvantages of Experiments

The researchers' ability to control the conditions can be a weakness; experimental studies can be artificial.

Measures of central tendency

Ways of calculating averages.

Correlation coefficients

Measures of the degree of correlation between variables.

Mean

A statistical measure of central tendency, or average, based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases.

Mode

The number that appears most often in a given set of data.

Median

The number that falls halfway in a range of numbers; a way of calculating central tendency that is sometimes more useful than calculating a mean.

Standard deviation

A way of calculating the spread of a group of numbers.

Degree of dispersal

The range or distribution of a set of figures.

Comparative research

Research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies.

Quantitative research

Most comparative work is quantitative in that researchers aim to document whether behaviors and attitudes change over time and place; a consistent metric is required to make comparisons.

Association in sociology

It can be hard to understand an association in which one social context produces a certain effect.

Community-based participatory research (CBPR)

A collaborative approach to research that equitably involves community members, researchers, and others in all aspects of the research process.

Empirical investigation

Factual inquiries carried out in any area of sociological study.

Pro of sociological research

Sociologists can pose questions directly to their subjects.

Con of sociological research

People who are aware that their activities are being scrutinized may not behave normally.

Culture

the values, norms, and material goods characteristic of a given group

Society

a group of people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups

Cultural universals

values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures (e.g., language, material objects, family/childcare, marriage)

Marriage

a socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals

Nonmaterial culture

cultural ideas that are not themselves physical objects (including values, norms, symbols, language, and speech and writing)

Values

ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad

Norms

rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations

Symbol

one item used to stand for or represent another, as in the case of a flag symbolizing a nation

Signifier

any vehicle of meaning and communication

Semiotics

the study of the ways in which nonlinguistic phenomena can generate meaning (e.g., a traffic light)

Language

the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society, language is a system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

a hypothesis, based on the theories of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language