Political Thought & Action - Exam II

What is the difference between power to and power over?

Power to is the capacity to achieve an outcome. Power over is the relational ability to influence or dominate others.

What does power as capacity emphasize?

An individual's or group's ability to act, achieve goals, and produce outcomes.

Why is power over considered relational?

It requires a relationship between actors in which one influences or controls another.

What is the first face of power according to Lukes?

Decision-making: power is who wins observable decisions, especially when interests conflict.

What are the main limitations of decision-making theory?

It ignores non-decisions, requires observable conflict, and assumes stated preferences reflect real interests.

What is the second face of power according to Lukes?

Agenda-setting: power is controlling which issues reach the decision-making agenda and which are excluded.

What is a non-decision?

Preventing an issue or proposed change from ever reaching formal consideration.

How does agenda-setting view decision-making?

Decision-making is only one part of power; controlling what gets decided can be equally important.

What is the third face of power according to Lukes?

Preference manipulation: power shapes people's beliefs, desires, and perceptions so they accept existing arrangements.

What is the main criticism of preference manipulation?

It is subjective because it raises the question of who determines people's real interests or whether their preferences are false.

What is the fourth face of power according to Heywood and Chin?

Productive power: power creates identities, meanings, and social categories through discourse and knowledge.

What are discourses of power?

Systems of language and knowledge that define what is normal, acceptable, true, or deviant.

What is the difference between critical theory and post-structuralism?

Critical theory seeks emancipation from domination and challenges existing institutions. Post-structuralism examines how language and knowledge produce power and rejects universal objective truths.

What is the difference between power and authority?

Power is the ability to influence behavior; authority is the recognized right to command and expect obedience.

What is the difference between being in authority and being an authority?

Being in authority means holding a legitimate position with the right to command. Being an authority means possessing expertise or recognized knowledge.

What are Weber's three types of authority?

Traditional authority, charismatic authority, and legal-rational authority.

What is traditional authority?

Obedience based on longstanding customs, hierarchy, and inherited status, such as a monarchy.

What is charismatic authority?

Obedience based on a leader's exceptional personal qualities and ability to inspire followers.

What is legal-rational authority?

Obedience to legally established offices and rules, rather than an individual's personality.

What is legitimacy?

The accepted rightfulness of power; people recognize a government or institution as entitled to rule.

What are Beetham's three conditions for legitimacy?

Power is exercised according to established rules; rules are justified by shared beliefs of governors and governed; and consent is expressed.

What is the difference between tacit and explicit consent?

Tacit consent is implied agreement. Explicit consent is directly communicated through verbal or written agreement.

What is constitutionalism?

Government is structured and limited by a constitution defining powers, rights, responsibilities, and restrictions.

Why is legitimacy important to authority?

Authority depends on accepted rightfulness; losing legitimacy threatens people's willingness to obey.

What caused tensions leading to the American Revolution?

British war debts led to colonial taxation, especially the Stamp Act, without colonial representation or consent.

What was the Stamp Act of 1765?

A British tax on colonial paper documents that fueled opposition to taxation without representation.

What is right consciousness?

Growing awareness of individual sovereignty, natural rights, consent, and representation.

What was Thomas Paine's central argument in Common Sense?

Hereditary monarchy and aristocracy are illegitimate; America should declare independence and establish representative government.

Why did Paine reject reconciliation with Britain?

Britain had caused too much harm, and dependence threatened American self-government and entangled the colonies in European conflicts.

What did Paine mean by "The law will be king"?

Written laws, not hereditary rulers or arbitrary individuals, should govern society.

What was the central argument of the Declaration of Independence?

Government derives its power from the consent of the governed and exists to protect rights. People may alter or abolish governments that violate those rights.

Why does the Declaration of Independence explain that revolutions are rare?

People generally tolerate minor abuses rather than overthrow established governments.

What were the Articles of Confederation?

A weak confederal system with one legislative branch, one vote per state, and limited national authority.

Why did the Articles of Confederation fail?

Congress could not tax or enforce laws. Passing laws required nine states, and amendments required all thirteen states to agree.

Why did Americans fear centralized government after independence?

They feared distant, concentrated power could threaten individual liberties, state sovereignty, and self-government.

What was the purpose of The Federalist essays?

Hamilton, Madison, and Jay defended ratification of the Constitution and explained why it would preserve the Union.

What was Madison's argument in Federalist 51?

Separate branches need independent powers and checks to prevent any one branch from dominating.

What does Madison mean by "ambition must counteract ambition"?

Because people seek power, government institutions should have incentives and authority to check one another.

How does Federalist 51 divide power?

Horizontally among branches of government and vertically between federal and state governments.

How does the Constitution address legitimacy and consent?

It establishes government through the people, defines limited authority, and provides mechanisms for accountability.

What are the three definitions of politics?

Politics as government; politics as public affairs; and politics as power and conflict.

Which thinkers are associated with politics as government?

Weber (state leadership), Hobbes (order), Aristotle and Aquinas (common good), and anarchists (government as oppressive).

Which thinkers are associated with politics as public affairs?

Aristotle, Arendt, Rousseau, and Mill emphasize community, participation, and collective decisions.

Which thinkers are associated with politics as power and conflict?

Lasswell, Schmitt, Marxists, feminists, and Foucault examine power beyond formal government.

What did Lasswell mean by "who gets what, when, how"?

Politics involves the distribution of resources, benefits, and power.

What does "the personal is political" mean?

Private experiences, including family and gender relations, reflect broader power structures and inequalities.

What is Foucault's contribution to understanding politics?

Power operates throughout society, shaping behavior, knowledge, identities, and what people consider normal.

What are Aristotle's six forms of government?

One ruler: monarchy (good) and tyranny (corrupt). Few rulers: aristocracy (good) and oligarchy (corrupt). Many rulers: polity (good) and democracy (corrupt).

How does Aristotle distinguish good and corrupt government?

Good governments serve the common good, while corrupt governments serve rulers' private interests.

What is republicanism?

A political tradition emphasizing non-domination, popular sovereignty, participation, rule of law, and the common good.

How does republican freedom differ from negative freedom?

Republican freedom means protection from domination or arbitrary power. Negative freedom means freedom from interference.

What are the characteristics of a republic?

Popular sovereignty, representation, rule of law, separation of powers, checks and balances, civic virtue, and the common good.

Why is a republic desirable?

It protects against arbitrary power, promotes participation, and makes government accountable to the people.

What is the difference between a state and a government?

The state is the enduring political entity. The government is the machinery and officials currently exercising state authority.

What are the four defining characteristics of a state?

Defined territory, permanent population, government, and sovereignty.

What are the four major functions of government?

Legislation, administration, judiciary, and foreign relations.

What is the absolutist view of the state, and which thinkers support it?

Hobbes and Bodin argue that centralized, supreme sovereign authority is necessary for order, security, and stability.

What is the constitutional view of the state, and which thinkers support it?

Locke and constitutional liberals argue that government rests on consent and is limited by law and individual rights.

How do absolutist and constitutional theories of sovereignty differ?

Absolutism favors undivided supreme authority, while constitutionalism limits and distributes authority through law.

What is the difference between legal and political sovereignty?

Legal sovereignty is recognized final authority under law. Political sovereignty is the actual power to secure compliance.

What is the difference between internal and external sovereignty?

Internal sovereignty is supreme authority within a state's borders. External sovereignty is independence from other states.

Why is sovereignty important?

It establishes who has final authority, who makes binding decisions, and whether a state is independent.

What was Machiavelli's central political approach?

Political realism: understanding power as it actually operates, prioritizing security, order, and stability.

Why does Machiavelli prefer being feared to being loved?

Fear is more dependable than affection because people may abandon goodwill when circumstances become difficult.

Why must a prince avoid being hated?

Hatred creates resentment and conspiracies, increasing the likelihood of rebellion.

What is Machiavelli's lion and fox metaphor?

The lion represents strength and force; the fox represents cunning and deception. An effective ruler needs both.

Why do appearances matter in The Prince?

People judge appearances more readily than reality, so rulers should appear virtuous even when circumstances require otherwise.

What is Machiavelli's view of cruelty?

Cruelty may establish order if necessary, decisive, limited, and not repeatedly inflicted.

How does a prince earn esteem according to Machiavelli?

Through decisive leadership, military success, rewarding merit, encouraging prosperity, and impressive actions.

Why does Machiavelli oppose neutrality?

Neutral rulers gain little gratitude and risk distrust; taking sides demonstrates conviction and builds alliances.

What makes a good adviser according to Machiavelli?

Competence, loyalty, honesty when consulted, expertise, and commitment to the state's interests.

What is the rule of law?

Laws, not individuals, govern society; everyone is subject to predictable, public, equally applied laws.

What does law regulate?

Relationships between individuals and the state through obligations, prohibitions, rights, and entitlements.

What would society have without the rule of law?

Arbitrary rule, where individuals exercise power unpredictably without consistent legal limits or equal protection.

What is the natural law theory of law, and which thinkers support it?

Law should conform to higher moral principles. Thinkers include Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Locke, and Jefferson.

What is the positive law theory of law, and which thinkers support it?

Law is valid when properly enacted, regardless of morality. Thinkers include Hobbes, Bentham, Austin, and Hart.

What is legal realism, and which thinker is associated with it?

Law reflects judicial interpretation and political judgment; Holmes challenged the idea of fully neutral judging.

How can you identify natural law in a scenario?

The argument evaluates law against justice, morality, reason, or universal moral standards.

How can you identify positive law in a scenario?

The argument focuses on whether law was properly created and what the law actually says.

How can you identify legal realism in a scenario?

The argument emphasizes judges, interpretation, court composition, and political influences on legal outcomes.

How do Mill and Devlin differ on using law to enforce morality?

Mill argues liberty should only be restricted to prevent harm to others. Devlin argues law may protect shared public morality and social cohesion.

What is the difference between social control and natural harmony?

Social control sees order as imposed through law and punishment. Natural harmony sees cooperation as emerging from social conditions.

What is the social control view of human nature, and which thinkers support it?

Hobbes, Burke, and Oakeshott see people as flawed and believe order requires authority, punishment, tradition, and institutions.

What is the natural harmony view of human nature, and which thinkers support it?

Rousseau, Marx, and anarchists argue people can cooperate and that inequality and unjust institutions produce disorder.

What is the difference between being obliged and having an obligation according to Hart?

Being obliged means being coerced by threats. Having an obligation means recognizing a duty or responsibility.

What are legal, moral, and political obligations?

Legal obligations are enforceable duties. Moral obligations are ethical duties. Political obligations are duties to recognize state authority and obey.

How do Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau explain political obligation through social contract theory?

Hobbes argues for strong obedience to avoid chaos. Locke sees government as conditional trust. Rousseau connects obedience to the general will.

What are alternatives to social contract theories of political obligation?

Teleological obligation (good outcomes), natural duty (social membership), and philosophical anarchism (no automatic duty to obey).

What is the difference between rebellion and revolution?

Rebellion resists authority; revolution seeks to replace or fundamentally transform the political system.

What is civil disobedience?

Public, principled, generally nonviolent lawbreaking intended to challenge injustice and produce change.

What are King's four steps of a nonviolent campaign?

Collect facts, negotiate, self-purification, and direct action.

What is self-purification in King's nonviolent campaign?

Preparing protesters morally and emotionally through self-discipline, nonviolence training, and readiness to endure suffering.

How did King justify direct action?

Failed negotiations and continuing injustice made constructive tension necessary to force officials to confront the issue.

What is citizenship, and what is civic virtue?

Citizenship is membership in a political community with rights and obligations. Civic virtue is commitment to the community and common good.

What are T.H. Marshall's three categories of citizenship rights?

Civil rights (individual freedoms), political rights (participation and voting), and social rights (welfare, education, and economic security).

What is the difference between social and active citizenship?

Social citizenship asks what society owes citizens through social rights. Active citizenship asks what citizens owe communities through responsibility and self-reliance.

What is the difference between Iris Marion Young's and Will Kymlicka's approaches to differentiated citizenship?

Young supports recognizing group differences to achieve equality. Kymlicka identifies self-government, polyethnic, and representation rights.

What is the difference between negative and positive freedom according to Isaiah Berlin?

Negative freedom is freedom from interference. Positive freedom is freedom to control your life through autonomy, self-government, and self-development.

What are the contributions of Locke, Berlin, Mill, and Rawls to theories of freedom?

Locke: natural liberty. Berlin: negative and positive freedom. Mill: harm principle. Rawls: equal liberty for all.

How do Douglass, Anthony, and Hughes challenge American ideals?

Douglass exposes slavery; Anthony exposes women's political exclusion; Hughes exposes unequal freedom and opportunity. All demand meaningful equality.