GERMANY-IGCSE EDEXCEL

What was Germany like in November 1918?

Germany was losing the First World War; its army was exhausted, food shortages were severe and public unrest was growing.

Why did the German Revolution of 1918–19 begin?

Sailors at Kiel mutinied in October–November 1918, sparking wider protests and workers' and soldiers' councils.

What happened on 9 November 1918?

Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and Germany was declared a republic.

Who announced a German republic on 9 November 1918?

Philipp Scheidemann announced a democratic republic; Karl Liebknecht also proclaimed a socialist republic.

What happened on 11 November 1918?

Germany signed the armistice, ending the fighting in the First World War.

Who became the first leader of the new German government?

Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD).

What was the Ebert–Groener agreement?

In November 1918, Ebert secured army support to maintain order and oppose revolution in return for preserving the army's authority.

What were the Spartacists?

A revolutionary socialist group led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht that wanted a communist revolution.

What happened in the Spartacist uprising in January 1919?

Spartacists attempted a revolution in Berlin; the government used the Freikorps to crush it.

What were the Freikorps?

Right-wing ex-soldier paramilitary groups used by the government to suppress communist uprisings.

What happened to Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht?

Both were captured and murdered by Freikorps members in January 1919.

What was the Weimar Republic?

Germany's democratic republic established after the Kaiser abdicated in 1918.

Why was the new republic called the Weimar Republic?

Its National Assembly met in Weimar in 1919 because Berlin was too politically unstable.

What did Article 48 allow?

The president could take emergency measures and rule by decree in a crisis without normal parliamentary approval.

How was the German president elected and what powers did they have?

The president was directly elected for seven years and appointed the chancellor, could dissolve the Reichstag and use Article 48.

What was the Reichstag?

The elected German parliament, which passed laws and controlled government legislation.

How was the Reichstag elected?

By proportional representation, with seats allocated broadly according to each party's share of the vote.

What was a strength of the Weimar Constitution?

It gave men and women over 20 the vote, protected civil rights and created an elected parliament.

What was a weakness of proportional representation?

It produced many small parties, making coalition governments unstable and difficult to maintain.

Why was Article 48 a weakness?

It gave the president extensive emergency powers that could undermine democracy.

Why was the president's position potentially dangerous?

The president could appoint chancellors and use emergency powers, allowing authority to become concentrated in one person.

What was the Treaty of Versailles?

The peace treaty imposed on Germany by the Allies in June 1919 after the First World War.

When was the Treaty of Versailles signed?

28 June 1919.

What did Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles state?

Germany and its allies accepted responsibility for the damage caused by the war, providing the basis for reparations.

How much were German reparations set at in 1921?

£6.6 billion.

What military restrictions did Versailles impose?

The army was limited to 100,000 volunteers; conscription, tanks, military aircraft and submarines were banned, and the navy was restricted.

Which territories did Germany lose under Versailles?

Alsace-Lorraine to France, Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, land to Poland, North Schleswig to Denmark and other territories; all overseas colonies were lost.

What was the Rhineland's status under Versailles?

It was demilitarised; German troops were forbidden from entering it.

Why did Germans resent the Treaty of Versailles?

They saw it as a dictated peace (Diktat) involving war guilt, reparations, territorial losses and humiliating military restrictions.

What was the 'stab-in-the-back' myth?

The false claim that Germany's army had not truly been defeated and had been betrayed by politicians, socialists and Jews at home.

How did the Treaty of Versailles damage the Weimar Republic?

Opponents blamed democratic politicians for accepting the treaty and called them the November Criminals.

What was the Kapp Putsch?

A right-wing attempt to overthrow the Weimar government in March 1920, led by Wolfgang Kapp and supported by the Freikorps.

Why did the Kapp Putsch happen?

The government ordered the disbandment of some Freikorps units, prompting right-wing resistance; nationalists also opposed the republic.

What happened during the Kapp Putsch?

Freikorps units entered Berlin and the government fled to Stuttgart; a general strike paralysed the capital.

Why did the Kapp Putsch fail?

Workers refused to cooperate, the general strike stopped essential services and the putsch lacked sufficient wider support.

What did the Kapp Putsch reveal about the Weimar Republic?

Some army officers and right-wing groups were hostile to democracy, while the government relied on workers to survive.

What was the Munich Putsch's connection to the early Weimar crises?

The crisis of 1923 encouraged Hitler and the Nazis to attempt to seize power in Bavaria.

What caused the French occupation of the Ruhr in January 1923?

Germany fell behind on reparations deliveries, so France and Belgium occupied the industrial Ruhr to seize goods and resources.

What was the Ruhr?

Germany's key industrial region, producing coal, iron and steel.

How did the German government respond to the Ruhr occupation?

It encouraged passive resistance, asking workers to strike and refuse to cooperate with French and Belgian occupiers.

Why did passive resistance worsen Germany's economy?

The government paid striking workers despite lost production, increasing public spending and money printing.

What is hyperinflation?

A rapid, extreme rise in prices that makes money lose its purchasing power.

What caused German hyperinflation in 1923?

War debts, reparations, the Ruhr occupation, passive resistance, falling production and excessive printing of money.

How did hyperinflation affect ordinary Germans?

Savings became worthless, wages struggled to keep up with prices and people needed huge amounts of cash for basic goods.

Who suffered especially badly from hyperinflation?

People on fixed incomes and those with savings, including pensioners and the middle classes.

Who could benefit from hyperinflation?

Some borrowers and people with debts could repay them in money that had lost much of its value.

What was the exchange-rate crisis during hyperinflation?

The mark collapsed in value; by November 1923, approximately 4.2 trillion marks equalled one US dollar.

How did the Weimar government end hyperinflation?

Gustav Stresemann ended passive resistance and introduced the Rentenmark in November 1923.

What was the significance of the 1923 crises?

They weakened trust in democracy but also prompted economic stabilisation and revealed that extremists could exploit national humiliation.

Who was Gustav Stresemann?

A leading German politician who became chancellor in August 1923 and foreign minister from 1923 to 1929.

What were Stresemann's main aims?

Restore economic stability, end international isolation, revise the harshest effects of Versailles peacefully and strengthen Germany.

What was the Rentenmark?

A new currency introduced in November 1923, backed by land and industrial assets, which helped stabilise prices.

Why did the Rentenmark help end hyperinflation?

Its limited issue and credible backing restored confidence and stopped the uncontrolled expansion of the old mark.

What other action helped stabilise the German economy in 1923?

Stresemann ended passive resistance in the Ruhr, reducing government expenditure and allowing production to recover.

What was the Dawes Plan?

A 1924 agreement that reorganised reparations payments, initially set at one billion gold marks annually, rising later, and arranged US loans.

How did the Dawes Plan help Germany?

US loans funded recovery, reparations payments became more manageable and French and Belgian troops began withdrawing from the Ruhr.

What was a weakness of the Dawes Plan?

Germany relied heavily on short-term American loans that could be withdrawn during a crisis.

What was the Young Plan?

A 1929 agreement that reduced total reparations to about 112 billion gold marks and extended payments over approximately 59 years.

Why was the Young Plan controversial in Germany?

Nationalists opposed continuing reparations and campaigned against it as a humiliation and a burden on future generations.

How did American loans contribute to German recovery?

They helped businesses invest, factories modernise, industry expand and employment improve.

What economic improvements occurred in Germany from 1924 to 1929?

Industrial output recovered, trade grew, inflation was controlled and living standards improved for many people.

Why was Germany's recovery incomplete?

Unemployment persisted in some industries, farmers faced low prices and many workers experienced insecurity.

Why was the recovery fragile?

It depended on American loans and credit, leaving Germany vulnerable if US lenders demanded repayment.

What was the Locarno Treaties agreement of 1925?

Germany, France and Belgium guaranteed their western borders, with Britain and Italy acting as guarantors.

Why were the Locarno Treaties important?

They improved relations between Germany and western European powers and reduced fears of another war in the west.

What was the significance of Germany joining the League of Nations in 1926?

Germany gained international acceptance and a permanent seat on the League Council.

What was the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928?

An agreement in which countries promised to renounce war as an instrument of national policy.

Why did Germany sign the Kellogg–Briand Pact?

It strengthened Germany's international standing and supported Stresemann's policy of peaceful diplomacy.

What was the overall success of Stresemann's foreign policy?

Germany became less isolated and gained greater international respect, although Versailles remained in force.

Why did some Germans oppose Stresemann's policies?

Nationalists believed cooperation with former enemies and acceptance of reparations betrayed German national interests.

What cultural changes occurred in Weimar Germany?

Berlin developed a vibrant cultural scene in cinema, theatre, architecture, art, music and literature.

What were the limitations of the 'Golden Years'?

Prosperity was uneven, traditional conservatives disliked cultural change and political extremism remained.

Why did the Weimar Republic survive in the mid-1920s?

Economic stabilisation, US loans, improved diplomacy and greater political moderation strengthened it.

What was the German Workers' Party (DAP)?

A small nationalist party Hitler joined in September 1919.

Why did Hitler join the DAP?

He shared its nationalism and anti-communism and saw an opportunity to influence German politics.

What was Hitler's role in the DAP?

He became a leading speaker, attracting supporters through emotional speeches and propaganda.

When was the DAP renamed the Nazi Party?

February 1920.

What did NSDAP stand for?

National Socialist German Workers' Party.

What were the main points of the Nazi 25-Point Programme?

Unite German-speaking people, overturn Versailles, expand German territory, restrict citizenship to those of German blood and strengthen national government.

What was the Nazi Party's position on the Treaty of Versailles?

It demanded its rejection and promised to restore German power and territory.

What were the Nazis' main beliefs?

Extreme nationalism, racism, antisemitism, anti-communism, rejection of Versailles, Führer leadership and territorial expansion.

What was the significance of Hitler becoming Nazi leader in 1921?

He gained control of the party and strengthened its centralised, authoritarian leadership.

What was the SA?

The Sturmabteilung, or Stormtroopers, a Nazi paramilitary organisation used to protect meetings, intimidate opponents and disrupt rival parties.

What was the significance of the swastika and Nazi uniforms?

They created a recognisable identity, encouraged unity and made the party appear organised and powerful.

Why did Hitler attempt the Munich Putsch in November 1923?

He wanted to overthrow the Bavarian government and use Munich as a base to seize national power during the crisis of 1923.

What was the Munich Putsch?

Hitler's failed attempt to seize power in Munich on 8–9 November 1923.

Who helped Hitler during the Munich Putsch?

Erich Ludendorff, a famous First World War general, supported the attempt.

What happened at the Munich Beer Hall on 8 November 1923?

Hitler and armed supporters disrupted a meeting and tried to force Bavarian leaders to support a revolution.

What happened on 9 November 1923?

The Nazis marched through Munich but were stopped by police gunfire; the putsch collapsed.

Why did the Munich Putsch fail?

The army and police did not join Hitler, the Bavarian leaders withdrew their support and the march was confronted by armed police.

What happened to Hitler after the Munich Putsch?

He was arrested, tried for treason and sentenced to five years' imprisonment, but served about nine months.

Why was Hitler's trial important?

It gave him national publicity and allowed him to present himself as a patriotic German.

What did Hitler write in prison?

Mein Kampf, outlining his political beliefs, antisemitism, racial ideology and plans for German expansion.

What lesson did Hitler learn from the Munich Putsch?

He decided to seek power legally through elections and political manoeuvring rather than an immediate armed revolt.

How did Hitler reorganise the Nazi Party after 1924?

He rebuilt local branches, strengthened leadership, developed propaganda and created specialised organisations to reach different groups.

What was the SS originally?

A small personal bodyguard formed in 1925 for Hitler, later expanded into a powerful Nazi security organisation.

What was the role of Joseph Goebbels?

He became the leading Nazi propaganda chief, using speeches, newspapers, posters, radio and rallies to spread Nazi messages.

Why did Nazi support remain limited between 1924 and 1928?

Economic recovery reduced desperation, and many voters preferred established parties while the Nazis lacked broad national support.