Exam units 1 + 2 + 3.7-3.9

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment

Associative Learning

A process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together

Habituation

Occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit to a repeated or enduring stimulus

Classical Conditioning

A learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed

Unconditioned Response

A natural and automatic reaction that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evoked a conditioned response

Conditioned Response

A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus

Acquisition

The initial learning of an association

Extinction

The process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction does not erase the association but supresess it temporarily

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience

Taste Aversion

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things

Biological Preparedness

The innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be followed

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like, such as food or water

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like because they’re connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior or skill

Instinctive Drift

Animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training

Superstitious Behavior

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for a behavior influencing the rate and persistence for that behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior everytime it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to predictable patterns of behavior

Variable Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with minimal pauses

Scalloped Pattern

This pattern forms a “scalloped” curve on a graph, illustrating how anticipation of reinforcement influences response timing, with subjects optimizing their efforts based on the expected timing of rewards

Learned Helplessness

A belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation

Social Learning Theory

Theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes, in learning from others in social contexts

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of others actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself

Insight Learning

A sudden understanding of a problem or situation that leads to a solution without prior trial and error, often accompanied by a feeling of “aha” or realization

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how psychological traits and behaviours have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success. (Ex. Fight or Flight).

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms w/ traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the advantageous traits.

Nature

The inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Nurture

The environmental influences and experiences that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors.

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit.

Heredity

The transmission of info from biological parents to offspring. It helps us determine what is from genes vs. environment.

Genetic Predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones.

Eugenics historical context

Originated in late 19th century with the goal of improving genetic qualities of human populations. Strongly associated with negative racial and social policies, including forced sterilizations and genocide.

Key figures in eugenics

Francis Galton (founder), Charles Davenport, and others who promoted eugenics theories and practices.

Significant Events in Eugenics

Early 20th Century: Adoption of eugenic policies in various countries, including the United States and Germany; Post World War II: Decline in eugenics practices following the Nazi atrocities.

Modern Relevance of Eugenics

Discusses the ethical dilemmas arising from new genetic technologies like CRISPR and gene editing which have the potential to revive eugenic-like practices under the guise of genetic enhancement.

Criticism and Controversy of Eugenics

Criticized for promoting discriminatory and unethical practices; modern science rejects eugenic principles due to their association with racism and pseudoscience.

The Nervous System

Our bodies communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves neurons and specialized cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing info, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. It serves as a communication network of sensory info from the body to the CNS.

Automatic System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions. It operates automatically, without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for fight or flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for slowing down and relaxing our body after a stress response.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory info from the body to the CNS.

Neurons

Specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Glial Cells

the "support cells" of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons.

Reflex Arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes).

Motor Neurons

A nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands or organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary muscle movements.

Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs to the CNS.

Interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other by sending electrical or chemical signals.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

All-or-Nothing Principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength.

Depolarization

Phase of the action potential where the neuron becomes less negative or slightly positive.

Refractory Period

A brief period after a neuron has fired during which it cannot generate another action potential.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive.

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. Attacks of myelin sheath exposing the axon.

myasthenia gravis (MG)

Chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles. Prevents muscle contraction.

Presynaptic Terminal

The end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron, where neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic Cleft

The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic terminal from the postsynaptic neuron

Postsynaptic Membrane

The membrane on the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron, which contains neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released from the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering changes in the postsynaptic neurons electrical potential.

Receptors

These are protein molecules embedded in the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters. When neurotransmitters bind to receptors, they cause ion channels to open or close, leading to changes in the postsynaptic neuron's electrical activity.

Ion channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.

excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the post-synaptic neuron

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the post-synaptic neuron

Glutamate

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, associated w/ learning and memory

Excess: Strokes, seizures, migraines

Deficiency: Seizures, insomnia

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety.

Excess: No sleep

Deficiency: Anxiety

Dopamine

Plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement.

Excess: Schizophrenia

Deficiency: Parkinsons

Serotonin

Plays a role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress.

Excess: Anxiety

Deficiency: Depression/aggression

Endorphins

Act as natural pain reliever.

Excess: Runners high

Deficiency: More pain and stress

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Excess: Sensitive to pain

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate physiological processes and behaviours.

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.