exam 2 (cldp 3332)

self-conscious emotions

develops around 18 months/3 years; jealousy, pride, envy, embarrassment, and empathy; indicates a child’s developed sense/awareness of self (e.g. rouge test)

emotional competence

the ability to fully experience/express a variety of emotions, regulate them, understand them, and empathize with them in others in a way that is beneficial; emerges in part from the challenges children encounter in the interactions they have w their peers

how does culture affect what behaviors children recognize as beneficial?

by reinforcing behavior through positive environmental engagement and interactions with peers/caregivers

cognitive reappraisal

changing one’s emotional response to an unpleasant event by intentionally changing the way they interpret it

Robber’s cave study

demonstrated in group/out group bias (went kind of horribly wrong); researchers had to create situations for either group to work together toward a common goal (e.g. positive intergroup contact)

controllability beliefs

beliefs that a person’s situation is due to their own actions; tend to blame individuals for their situation

developmental intergroup theory (DIT)

Bigler & Liben; social categorization via psychological salience of certain traits (e.g. race/gender) is a precursor to prejudice/stereotyping (e.g. children construct their own links between social categories and attitudes based on how their brain organizes information)

psychological salience

noticeability/awareness of certain groups’ traits

essentialism

the belief that members of a certain category share inherent, non obvious qualities; visible markers of a group denote other unseen qualities to children

social-cognitive developmental theory of prejudice

Aboud; the changes in children’s brains as they mature influences their understanding of the existence of prejudice by how they organize such information (the formation of prejudice is more than just environmental)

why do children hold the most negative prejudices at ages 5 and 7?

the preoperational stage inhibits their ability to think abstractly about concept like gender and race

social learning approach

Gordon Allport; children learn prejudice by observing/imitating authority figures; support for this approach is inconsistent

affective components

bias factor; feelings of dislike/contempt

behavioral components

bias factor; discrimination/differing treatment

cognitive components

bias factor; stereotypes/beliefs

stereotypes

perceptions, beliefs, and expectations abt members of a certain group

prejudice

negative attitudes toward a group, both explicitly and implicitly

gender typing

the process by which children learn and acquire gender roles

gender roles

behaviors, attitudes, traits, etc. that a culture considers appropriate for each sex

biological perspective

genetic/heritable differences define gender roles (e.g. cultures have similarities in how gender is understood, so there must be an underlying relationship); fails to consider the cultural expectations/early socialization or all the differences seen

Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory

social cognitive perspective; children develop gender concept through gender identity (24-30 months), gender stability (3-4 years), and gender constancy (5-7 years); children’s gender concept is related to cognitive development

gender constancy

the understanding that a person’s appearance does not denote their gender

gender stability

the understanding that gender stays constant

when forming assumptions about others, children first…

establish psychological salience (noticibility) of others’ features

when forming assumptions about others, children then…

categorize the psychologically salient features of others

when forming assumptions about others, children finally…

form stereotypes and prejudices based on the psychologically salient features of others

social consensus intervention

using in-group influences to change people’s beliefs/attitudes abt an out-group

naive psychology

children’s understanding of how the human mind works in themselves and others

social cognition

complex thought processes; children’s understanding of what others believe, act, and what they desire (e.g. naive psychology)

goldfish-broccoli study

Repacholi and Gopnik; older children gave researchers what the researcher said they liked, younger children gave researchers what they themselves liked; implied older children are able to understand the wants/needs of others (social cognition)

false belief tasks

determinants of theory of mind; younger children are incapable of considering the mental state of others (e.g. bandaid box task → what would your mom think was in this box?)

second order false belief tasks

asks the child what an outside observer would think of a situation (e.g. bandaid box task → what you your friend’s mom think about what your mom would think about what was in this crayon box?); passed ~9-10 years old

when do children achieve theory of mind? (ToM)?

around 4 years old

theory of mind (ToM)

children’s capability of predicting/explaining what is their own and other people’s minds; the ability to understand the mental states of oneself/others and how that influences behavior (emotions cause reactions); relatively universal developmentally across cultures

theory of mind module

proposed ToM theory; a specialized, domain specific brain mechanism designed to help kids develop a sense of self

domain general cognitive abilities

proposed ToM theory; information processing skills (e.g. attention, memory, executive function) are thought to influence ToM development

complex representational abilities

proposed ToM theory; children’s ability to create mental representations abt objects/actions are thought to influence how their self-concept/ToM develops

environmental experience

proposed ToM theory; increased opportunity for social interactions and learning others’ perspectives is thought to improve ToM development (e.g. laterborns have better ToM on average than firstborns)

according to Slaughter et. al, there is __________ between ToM and peer popularity.

a positive correlation

identity

seeing oneself as a discrete, separate entity; seeking to understand current and future self; driven by biological, social, and cognitive factors

identity forclosure

James Marcia; an individual commits to a set identity without exploring other options

identity moratorium

James Marcia; exploration/search; an individual searches for an identity to commit to without having narrowed it down yet (selves are constantly “dying”)

identity achievement

James Marcia; exploration/search; commitment to a discovered identity; feels concrete

identity diffusion

James Marcia; lack of a stable, integrated sense of self or interest in achieving one

ethnic identity

sense of belonging to a certain race or ethnic group

“i” self

subjective sense of self; knowing oneself is separate from others; self endures over time

“me” self

objective sense of self; descriptive self, self concepts, and representations; reinforced by the environment that children are separate beings, allowing attachment to occur (individuation and connectedness in this self)

as children develop self-concept, they begin to compare themselves to others and become less positive around…

5-7 yrs

as children develop self-concept, they become more aligned with their values/roles/preferences of their community and adopt a more global sense of self worth/realistic perceptions (e.g. trait labels that are meaningful = something fundamental about themselves “if i get called weak, i am weak”).

This occurs around…

7-10 yrs

as children develop self-concept, they focus in their interpersonal attributes and social skills. They may also see themselves differently based on certain contexts, such as feeling different emotions. They also become more hyperintrospective and preoccupied with what others think abt them, questioning their self truths (e.g. “am I empathetic?)

This occurs around…

adolescence

as children develop self-concept, children consider their potential, and who they might turn into in the future. This occurs around…

late adolescence

self-concept

the knowledge/beliefs one has about oneself; can become adaptable (able to accommodate to various situations/contexts); shaped by cognitive development and social experiences (e.g. Harter’s construction of self theory)

Harter’s construction of self theory

children form realistic views of their pos/neg traits (due to increase in capacity for cognitive perspective taking aka switching povs w others to understand them) and develop stronger social sensitivity (older kids are super preoccupied w how others see them) in order to create their self-concept; shaped by both cognitive-developmental and social experiences

ACE model

additive genetics (impact of inherited genes), common environment (shared environmental influences that make family members similar), and unique environment (non-shared environmental factors); used in twin studies to split the total variation of a trait

self esteem

an individual’s evaluation of how they feel about their self concept; children’s sense of worth as a person that persists; associated w stronger mPFC activity

why do young children tend to have overwhelmingly positive views of self?

children receive a lot of praise from their caretakers and have a limited opportunity to compare themselves to others

social referencing

using social cues/environmental responses to guide emotional reaction

mistaken gift task

Kieras et. al; children higher in EC (emotional control) showed more positive affect when given the unwanted object (even if they were negative at first); implies that higher EC = better emotional competence/emotional control

empathy

individuals’ abilities to understand and feel the emotions of others

ecological momentary assessment (EMA)

tracking responses to stimuli in real time; codes affect

global empathy

rudimentary empathetic way of responding (birth - 1 year; emotional contagion e.g. one baby cries → they all start crying); mostly reflexive

egocentric empathy/empathetic distress

around 1 year old; children console others based on what makes them feel better; lack true helping knowledge (e.g. giving a man who just got stabbed their blankie 🥺)

true empathetic distress

2-3 years; actual understanding of others’ emotions; increases sensitivity to others’ cues and needs; linked to language skills and perspective taking

empathy for the life condition

6-9 years; feels sympathy towards others’ whose existences are fundamentally different and can cause difficulties for them (e.g. seeing someone w a chronic illness and feeling bad for them); heightened social awareness/charitable behavior

primary emotions

emerge around 6-8 months; surprise, interest, joy, distress, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust

emotion coaching

bidirectional; teaching kids about how to monitor their emotions and articulate them healthily; increases emotional regulation in kids

emotional socialization

changes in emotional understanding/expression in children leads to changes in their social competence and emotional regulation

children show racial bias in faces in…

infancy

children use racial labels for others and exhibit bias at…

early childhood

children connect their personal activities to their racial/ethnic backgrounds in…

middle childhood

children are able to recognize bias, prejudice, and their own racial identity in…

adolescence

Contraras et al. study

found that cultural socialization helps foster the formation of concrete and positive racial identity (e.g. taking kids to ethnic stores/events)

marginal orientation

an individual’s disconnect between either of the cultures they are part of; associated w the worst identity outcomes

Bussey & Bandura’s social cognitive theory of gender development

observation (e.g. children look at the way gender roles are carried out in their environment and model accordingly) direct teaching (e.g. enforcing gender through modeling [giving male children only blue clothes to wear]), behavioral feedback (e.g. social interactions approving/condemning certain behavior related to gender) and internalization (e.g. children integrating gender concepts/expectations into their view of self and others)

Fast & Olson’s study

suggested that trans kids have strong gender identity and can also pass constancy/stability/identity tasks (e.g. trans boys know that they are boys, will grow up to be boys, and are boys despite the fact that they might not appear that way); trans youth also apply their thinking to the experiences of others (e.g. willing to consider that other people may also feel similarly to them about their gender)

gender schema theory

children develop organized mental representations of gender; as children experience more things in their environment, they use these representations to interpret their behavior/others’ behaviors