General Psychology: Lifespan Development

Comprehensive flashcards covering developmental psychology topics including prenatal development, newborn reflexes and senses, attachment and parenting styles, Piaget's cognitive stages, Kohlberg's moral stages, Erikson's psychosocial stages, and cognitive/physical changes in old age.

What three core domains do developmental psychologists study across the human lifespan?

1. Physical Development (growth and changes in the body and brain, senses, motor skills, health, and wellness);
2. Cognitive Development (learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity);
3. Psychosocial Development (emotions, personality, and social relationships).

What is the central question in the "Continuous vs. Discontinuous" debate of developmental psychology?

Whether development is a gradual/cumulative process, or whether it occurs more suddenly at specific times, ages, or stages.

What question does the "One Course of Development or Many" issue explore?

Whether development follows the same, universal course for all children, or varies depending on genetics and the individual's environment/culture.

What is the distinction between nature and nurture in developmental psychology?

Nature refers to the influence of biology and genetics, whereas nurture refers to the influence of environment and culture.

What is a teratogen?

An environmental agent (biological, chemical, or physical) that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

What negative outcomes are linked to alcohol and smoking during prenatal development?

Alcohol can cause fetal-alcohol syndrome. Smoking can result in premature birth, low-birth weight, stillbirths, and sudden infant death syndrome.

What potential harms do illicit/prescription drugs, radiation, and viruses pose to prenatal development?

Drugs (heroin, cocaine, prescription drugs) can lead to impaired cognitive functioning, attention span, and academic achievement. Radiation and viruses can cause fetal deformities and cognitive abnormalities.

How is the rooting reflex defined in newborns?

An automatic survival reflex where the infant's head turns when the cheek is stimulated.

How are the sucking, grasping, and Moro reflexes described?

Sucking reflex: sucking on objects placed by the mouth. Grasping reflex: clinging to objects placed in the hands. Moro reflex: spreading arms and pulling them back in when startled or feeling like they are falling.

Besides rooting, sucking, grasping, and Moro, what other automatic motor reflexes do newborns possess?

Knee-Jerk, Eye-Blink, Sneeze, and Startle Response.

What are the primary sensory capabilities and preferences of a newborn regarding vision, hearing, and olfaction?

Vision is the least developed sense and shows a preference for faces; hearing shows a preference for human voices and the mother's voice over a stranger's; olfaction allows the newborn to distinguish the smell of their own mother from that of others.

What is attachment, and why is it important?

A deep emotional bond between an infant and primary caregiver that is important for health and emotional development, serving as the foundation of future adult relationships.

What is contact comfort?

The innate pleasure derived from close physical contact.

What is separation anxiety, and when does it typically develop in children?

The distress that most children develop between $6$ to $10$ months of age when they are temporarily separated from their primary caregivers.

How does a child with a secure attachment style behave in the Strange Situation, and under what conditions is it common?

The child uses the parent as a secure base from which to explore, becomes distressed when the mother leaves, and is happy when she returns; it is common when caregivers are sensitive and responsive to needs.

How does an avoidant child behave in the Strange Situation, and what caregiving pattern is it linked to?

The child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use them as a secure base, does not care if they leave, and is slow to show a positive reaction upon return; it is common when caregivers are insensitive and inattentive to needs.

What behaviors indicate resistant attachment in the Strange Situation, and when is it typically observed?

The child shows clingy behavior but rejects the mother's attempts to interact, does not explore, becomes disturbed/angry when the mother leaves, and is difficult to comfort upon return; it is common when the caregiver is inconsistent with their level of response.

What behaviors characterize disorganized attachment in the Strange Situation, and what is a common cause?

The child exhibits odd behavior around the caregiver (e.g., freezes or runs around erratically when the mother leaves, tries to run away when she returns); it is common when the child has been abused.

What defines the authoritative parenting style?

Setting reasonable demands and consistent limits, expressing warmth and affection, and listening to the child's point of view.

What defines the authoritarian parenting style?

Placing a high value on conformity and obedience, being rigid, and expressing little warmth to the child.

How do permissive and uninvolved parenting styles differ?

Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment; uninvolved parents are indifferent, uninvolved, sometimes neglectful, do not respond to child needs, and make relatively few demands.

What is temperament, and how do easy and difficult temperaments affect parenting?

Temperament refers to innate traits influencing thoughts, behaviors, and reactions. An easy temperament (positive emotions, adapts well, regulates emotions) elicits warm, responsive parenting. A difficult temperament (negative emotions, difficulty adapting/regulating) evokes parental irritation and withdrawal.

According to Jean Piaget, what is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?

Assimilation is absorbing new information into existing mental categories, while accommodation is modifying existing mental categories in response to new information.

What happens during Piaget's Sensorimotor stage (birth to $2$ years), and what is its major accomplishment?

Infants learn through concrete actions (looking, touching, sucking, grasping) and coordinate sensory information with bodily movements. The major accomplishment is object permanence: understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen or touched.

What are the hallmarks and cognitive limitations of Piaget's Preoperational stage ($2$ to $6$ years)?

Language and symbolic thought develop, but children lack operations for abstract principles. They cannot grasp conservation (that physical properties remain constant despite appearance changes) and exhibit egocentrism (seeing the world only from their own frame of reference).

What cognitive abilities develop during Piaget's Concrete Operations stage ($7$ to $11$ years)?

While grounded in concrete experiences, children master conservation, cause and effect, mental operations (e.g., basic arithmetic), categorization, and serial ordering (e.g., small to large, light to dark).

What marks the transition into Piaget's Formal Operations stage ($12+$ years)?

The beginning of abstract reasoning: individuals can reason about situations not personally experienced, think about the future, search systematically for solutions, and draw logical conclusions.

What are the two major limitations of Piaget's four-stage model of cognitive development?

1. Cognitive development occurs gradually, continuously, and overlapping rather than in discrete steps or stages.
2. Children and infants reveal cognitive abilities (such as object understanding) much earlier than Piaget believed possible.

What are the two stages in Level 1 (Pre-conventional morality) of Kohlberg's theory?

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment (behavior driven by avoiding punishment). Stage 2: Individual interest (behavior driven by self-interest and rewards).

What are the two stages in Level 2 (Conventional morality) of Kohlberg's theory?

Stage 3: Interpersonal (behavior driven by social approval). Stage 4: Authority (behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order).

What are the two stages in Level 3 (Post-conventional morality) of Kohlberg's theory?

Stage 5: Social contract (behavior driven by a balance of social order and individual rights). Stage 6: Universal ethics (behavior driven by internal moral principles).

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 1?

Trust vs. Mistrust (ages $0$ to $1$): Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 2?

Autonomy vs. Shame (ages $1$ to $3$): Develop a sense of independence in many tasks.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 3?

Initiative vs. Guilt (ages $3$ to $6$): Take initiative on some activities; may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries are overstepped.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 4?

Competence vs. Inferiority (ages $7$ to $11$): Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent, or a sense of inferiority when not.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 5?

Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages $12$ to $18$): Experiment with and develop identity and roles.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 6?

Intimacy vs. Isolation (ages $19$ to $29$): Establish intimacy and relationships with others.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 7?

Generativity vs. Stagnation (ages $30$ to $64$): Contribute to society and be part of a family.

What is the psychosocial challenge and age range for Erikson's Stage 8?

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (ages $65+$): Assess and make sense of life and the meaning of contributions.

How do fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence change during old age?

Fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, problem solving) begins to decline in old age. Crystallized intelligence (knowledge, skills, and strategies gathered through experience/learning) remains relatively constant over a lifetime.

What can delay cognitive decline in older adults?

Engaging in cognitive activities, such as playing chess or reading.

According to gerontologists, what proportion of physical losses associated with old age is genetically determined?

Only $30\%$ of physical losses are genetically based; the remaining $70\%$ is environmental or psychological.

What are the environmental or psychological causes of apparent senility, weakness/frailty, and depression/passivity in old age?

Apparent senility arises from malnutrition and medications; weakness and frailty stem from sedentary lifestyles; depression, passivity, and memory problems result from loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, goals, and control over events.