General Psychology

Definition

science that studies behavior, physiological, and behavioral processes that underlie behavior ~ profession that applies knowledge of this science to practical problems

Why Study?

study psychology to gain a better understanding of yourself and others ~ improve yourself professionally, intellectually, and increase critical thinking

Critical Thinking and Psychological Reasoning

psych reasoning: research to examine how people think and to better understand how/why we may come to erroneous conclusions (inaccurate/biased) → typically lead by noncritical thinking

• ignoring evidence (conformation bias), see nonexistence causal relationships, accept after-the-fact explanations, taking mental shortcuts

Before the Study of Psychology…

behavior was explained by the supernatural (mythology/tradition), and later philosophy (Confucius)

Age of Rationalism ~ Greek and Roman

the study of body and mind ~ fundamental argument about nature/nurture and mind/body (Decart)

Aristotle/Plate: behavior is best understood by reason, logic, and common sense (mind)

Humoral Theory (Hippocrates/Galen): based on body

New Science Born

1843: John Stuart Mill - argues psychology study of “observation and experimentation”

FOUNDER OF MODER PSYC - 1979: Wilhelm Wundt est 1st psyc lab/institute in Leipzig

• psych and philosophy combines to create modern psychology

psych became study of conscious experience

Founder or Modern Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralism

Wundt + Titchener : study elemental structures of consciousness ~ sensation, feelings, etc.

• used introspection: systematic self observation of our own conscious experience → Basic Knowledge Approach

Functionalism

James : influence by Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection - seen characteristics mush serve an adaptive purpose

• study of purpose + function of consciousness

Stream of Consciousness

is always being experienced ~ NOT static points on a line

• mental testing, child development, eduction practices (Applied Knowledge Basis)

Gestalt believed…

whole of experience is different from the sum of constituent elements

• perception= subjective and dependent on context, sensory, and personality

Behaviorism

Watson + Skinner

learning - verifiability/science of behavior

• believed that psychology should abandon study of consciousness - free will = illusion

  • psych should be limited to observed behavior

minimized role of heredity + emphasized role of environment (nature vs nurture)

• behavior = made not born

• we repeat what is reinforced

rise of animal research

Cognitive

Miller + Neissen + Simon

rooted in structuralism and focused on thought and information processing

• how do people acquire and store information

  • memory + thinking (Piaget), sensory + perception, language acquisition (Chomsky)

study internal events

liked with the growing use of computers

Social Psychology

Lewin + Allport + Asch

central to human behavior: is affected by the presence of others, the power of a situation = great, conformity/impression formation/stereotypes/prejudice

• modern social psych emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in social behavior

Humanism ~ Personality

Rogers + Maslow

qualities like freedom + potential for growth, humans = masters of own destiny

• believed that behaviorism/psychoanalytic theory = dehumanizing

• behavior = governed by self-concept (Rogers) and self-actualization (Maslow)

linked to positive psych

Physiological + Biological

Olds + Sperry + Gazzaniga

behavior is explained by bodily structures, biological processes, and bio correlation to behavior

Evolutionary

Buss + Cosmides + Tooby + Pinker

rooted in functionalism, believed that behavior is influenced by natural selection (adaptations enhance repro success)

Psych Historically had…

overrepresentation of white males in middle/upper class - there is increased interest in culture + diversity

Margaret Floy Washburn

1st woman to receive PhD in psych 1894

Mary Whiton Calkins

1st female president of APA in 1905

invented paired-associate technique to study memory

Leta Stetter Hollingworth

PhD from Columbia 1916

1st research debunking female inferiority

Francis Cecil Summer

1st African American to receive PhD in psych 1920

Inez Beverly Prosser

1st African American woman to receive PhD in psych 1933

Kenneth Bancroft Clark + Mamie Phipps Clark

1st African American man and woman to receive PhD’s in psych from Columbia 1943

the Clarks conducted groundbreaking research on self esteem among African American children instrumental in Brown vs. Board of Education

Fields of Psych

clinical: research, therapy

cognitive: basic skills, attention memory, perception

cultural: religion, national beliefs, geographical factors

developmental: human growth + development

health: physical health impacted by psych factors

industrial/organizational: psych in workplace

relationship: intimate/romantic partner psych

social-personality: everyday thought, feeling, behaviors

Which of the following statements best characterizes the difference between psychology and sociology?

sociology is more focused on the history of human behavior, while psychology is more focused on human behavior in the present

Renee believes that although the mind and body are linked, they have separate distinct functions. Her view reflects _______

dualism

If you believe that the mind is not made of discrete elements but rather is flowing, changing, and continuous, your beliefs are most similar to those of _______

james

William James argued that psychology should focus on how the mind allows people to adapt to the environment. What is the term used to describe this historical school of thought in psychology?

functionalism

Beliefs, values, norms, rules, and customs that people learn from those who share their language or environment comprise ______

a culture

Marwan has been relatively shy his whole life, and he is not sure what underlies this trait. Marwan might find some answers by examining the subfield called ______ psychology

social-personality

Dr. Cohen believes that the study of psychology should be limited to stimuli that can be measured and responses that can be observed. Which term describes this approach?

behaviorism

Modern psychologists focus on multiple levels of analysis in understanding human behavior. Which is the most common theoretical perspective?

the biopsychosocial model

Goals of Psych Research

1. characterize how people/animals act

2. understand why organisms think/behave the way they do

3. predict behavior, thoughts, and biological process based on other observed behaviors

4. attempt to influence behavior/mental processing

Scientific Method

theory → hypothesis → research → support theory OR disprove theory

Theory

interconnected ideas that explain what is observed to make a prediction about future ~ broad

Hypothesis

derived from theory about the relationship between 2 or more variables ~ specific/testable against control

Steps for research

1. create a research question

2. conduct a lit. review

3. form hypothesis

4. design study (choose research method)

5. conduct study

6. analyze data

7. report findings

Descriptive Studies (Description)

observing/recording behavior to describe it objectively/systematically

pros: realistic, ability to observe rare things

cons: hard to determine cause/effect, measurement bias (sampling, observer, self-report bias)

• naturalistic observation: prolonged observation without directing subjects

• participant observation: participation in studied behavior

• case studies: in depth examination of unique individuals, event, or organizations

• self-report: ask people to provide info about themselves

Correlational Studies (Prediction)

examine relationships between variables without any manipulation

ability to predict behavioral outcomes

pros: favored when ethical dilemmas may be present, used to develop statistical predictions, ability to use of research

cons: cause/effect can’t be determined, measurement bias may be present

• when 2 variables are related in linear fashion

  • x may cause y, y may cause x → 3rd variable may cause

    • 1. directional (+/-) ~ may have 3rd variable problem

    • 2. strength (-1/+1)

Experimental Studies (Explanation)

1 variable is manipulated in controlled conditions to observe if change occurs in the second variable → CAUSE + EFFECT

Independent Variable (IV)

variable that is manipulated → to see impact on other variable

Dependent Variable (DV)

variable that is influenced by IV → DEPENDENT on IV

Confounding/Extraneous Variable

any variable besides IV that may effect the DV

Experimental Group

participants receiving special treatment in regards to IV ~ assigned randomly

Control Group

participants with no special treatment → baseline/comparison group ~ assigned randomly

Reliability in Research

consistency/repeatability across time, forms of measurement, items within measure, rates/score of measure

Validity in Research

extent at which a measure really measure what its claiming to measure

Internal Validity

extent to which cause-effect can be drawn from the study → strong in experimental studies

External Validity

degree to which finding can be generalized to other participants, settings, situations → weak in experimental studies

Selection Bias

internal validity issue

addresses potential confounding factors, random assignment so all participants have same chance for both study conditions

Sampling Bias

external validity issue

when a sample isn’t representative of a population to which conclusion are applied

Ethics in Research

ends justify means? → principle of beneficence

is the scientific contribution worth the potential human/animal risk? → Tuskegee study, informed consent debriefing, justice

When Jon burned his finger on the stove, ______ neurons carried the message to the spinal cord, and ______ neurons instructed the muscles in his arm to retract from the flame.

sensory; motor

The Order in which a Signal Travels thought Neuron

dendrite → soma → axon → terminal button

Dendrites

branchlike appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons

An Axon…

transmits nerve impulses to the terminal button

Myelin Sheath

provides insulation to the axon

What happens when the Action Potential Reaches the Terminal Button?

the signal causes the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter

Neural Communication

neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind with receptors on the postsynaptic dendrite

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that’s involved in enabling nerves that connect with muscles as you raise your arms above your head

Drugs that enhance the effects of GABA (i.e., GABA agonists) ______

are used to treat anxiety and insomnia

Narcotics, such as heroin and morphine, are rapidly addictive because they ______

bind to endorphin receptors

the Amygdala is responsible for…

fear or emotional reactions

the Hippocampus is responsible for…

spatial memory

the Frontal Lobes are…

responsible for higher-level cognitive functions → attention, impulse control, decision making, and planning

the Hypothalamus is…

responsible for lower-level behaviors → thirst, hunger, sex drive, and aggression

the Parietal Lobe has the…

Somatosensory Cortex → regulates the ability to feel touch

Brain Stem is responsible for…

basic life function → respiration and circulation

Autonomic Nervous System

part of the Peripheral Nervous System

automatic body functions → breathing, sweating, heartbeat

the Endocrine System…

works by releasing hormones that ultimately influence behaviors, thoughts, and actions

Nervous System Research Methods

brain lesions methodology

electrocephalography (EEG)

imaging

• computerized tomography (CT)

• positron emission tomography (PET)

• functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

electrical stimulation of the brain (TMS)

drug studies

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal chord

coated I cerebrospinal fluid → to enter my go through blood-brain barrier

Peripheral Nervous System

all nerves in body except for brain/spinal chord

Neuron Types

sensory neurons: detect information and pass info to brain/spinal chord

interneurons: relays between sensory and motor

motor neurons: send information from brain/spinal chord → muscle contractions/relaxation

Neuron Features

cell body: collects information

dendrites: detects info from other neurons

axon: transmits information to terminal button

nodes of ranvier: small gaps between axon-myelin sheaths

myelin sheath: protects/insulates axon

terminal button: release chemical signals to axon

synapsis: gaps between neurons

Neurons at Rest

ions in/out of neurons → flow across cell membrane which makes the neurons polarized

*resting potential: a neurons stable and negative charge when inactive

Neurons at Reception/Integration

neurons have received a chemical signal

excitatory signals: depolarize cell membrane → makes neuron more likely to fire

inhibitory signals: hyperbolizes cell membrane → makes neuron less likely to fire

Action Potential

neural impulse that moves along axon → causes chemical release

• all or nothing: fire at same strength → rate differs

Neurotransmitters

stored in vesicles of terminal button

release by presynaptic neuron → bind with postsynaptic cell membrane at receptor site → terminated or deactivation or autoreception

receptors: postsynaptic site that receive neurotransmissions → emotions, thoughts, behaviors

Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter

muscle movement, learning, memory, sleeping, dreaming

Norepinephrine: Neurotransmitter

arousal, alertness, vigilance

Serotonin: Neurotransmitter

emotional state, impulsiveness, sleeping/dreaming

GABA: Neurotransmitter

primary inhibitory transmitters, anxiety

Glutamate: Neurotransmitter

primary excitatory transmitters, learning, memory

Endorphins: Neurotransmitter

pain reduction, reward

Agonist Drugs

increase production, mimic, block re-uptake of neurotransmitters

Antagonist Drugs

decrease production, block reception, facilitate deactivation of neurotransmitters

Narcotics

agonist → mimic endorphins

SSRI’s: agonist → treat depression/anxiety

L-DOPA: dopamine agonist → treats parkinson’s and schizophrenia

Forebrain

complex thoughts, planning, decision making

consist of … left/right cerebral hemispheres connected by corpus callosum → lateral fissure and central fissure divide into 4 lobes

cerebral cortex → gray matter (neutral cell bodies, nonmyelinated axons), white matter (myelinated axons)

Cerebral hemispheres: Forebrain lobes (cerebral Cortex)

occipital lobes: primary visual cortex

parietal lobes: primary somatosensory cortex

tempotal lobes: primary auditory cortex

frontal lobes: primary motor and prefrontal cortex

Cerebral hemispheres: If Damaged

when damaged significant damage can take place

Broca’s Area: left frontal cortex → if damaged causes problems with speech

• was damaged in Phineas Gage

Insula

part of cerebral cortex - lies inside lateral fissure → taste, pain, empathy

Thalamus

near the center of the brain → relays incoming sensory information

Hypothalamus

near center of brain near thalamus - master regulatory system → eating, fight/flight/flee, sexual behavior

Hippocampus

responsible for storage of new memories

Amygdala

connects learning to emotional response (ex. fear)

Basal Ganglia

subcortical structures → planning and production of movement

damaged connected to Parkinson’s and Huntingtons disease (movement disorders)

nucleus accumbens - within BG → dopamine rich, associated with reward, pleasure, motivation

Brain Stem

consists of medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, reticular formation (alertness/sleep)

connects to spinal chord → basic survival functions (heart rate, breathing, swallowing)

Cerebellum

motor control and balance

damage will cause problems with limb coordination, head tilt, visual tracking, etc