digital divide

what is the digital divide

unequal opportunities to access and use ICTs across individuals, households, businesses and geographic ares

what are the three levels of the digital divide

access, skills and usage, outcomes and benefits

what is the difference between macro, miso and micro frameworks

macro: structures and policies, meso: mechanisms reproducing inequality, micro: individual circumstances and behaviours

what are the four models of future digital inequality

normalisation, stratification, leap-frogging, amplificatoin

what is digital capital in Bourdieu’s theory

ability to use, adapt and benefit from digital technologies, it can convert into other forms of capital

how does structuration theory explain digital inequality

structures constrain or enable agency, while individual agency reproduces or reshapes those structures

what are the four stages of domestication theory

appropriation (acquire), objectification (assign meaning), incorporation (routinise), conversion (display outward)

what is bounded rationality

people make decisions with limited information, time and cognitive resources rather than optimising perfectly

what is a dark pattern

interface design that steers users unfairly, such as hidden costs, force continuity or confirm shaming

how does the corresponding fields model explain digital inequality

offline resources shape online participation, existing inequalities are reproduced through digital activities and outcomes

what are the four key drivers of digital inequality

physical, digital, human and social resources

what are physical resources

devices, internet connectivity and usable infrastructure needed to participate digitally

why is device ownership insufficient for digital inclusion

users also need affordable data plans, reliable connectivity, maintenance and usable infrastructure

what are digital resources

relevant online content, language availability, accessibility and the ability to find useful information

what is information colonialism in digital resources

dominance of particular languages and knowledge systems can marginalise other communities and perspectives

what is the difference between digital skills and digital literacy

skills are practical abilities to operate technology, literacy is broader conceptual and critical understanding w

what is social capital

resources embedded in social networks that can provide information, support and opportunities

differentiate bonding, bridging and linking capital

bonding: stron ties within similar groups, bridging: ties across groups, linking: ties to institutions and power

how do resource inequalities differ between developed and developing countries

developed countries often have high overall penetration but internal gaps, developing countries may also face basic connectivity shortages

how can social resources reduce digital inequality and what risks remain

peers, communities and civic groups provide support and opportunities, but platform dependency, echo chambers and activism gaps remain

what is fintech

the use of digital technologies to innovate in and deliver financial services

three stages of fintech evolution

Fintech 1.0 (1866–1967): communication infrastructure. 2.0 (1967–2008): digital banking. 3.0 (2008–present): startups and big tech

how did the 2008 financial crisis influence fintech

declining trust in banks created opportunities for non bank firms, startups and big tech financial service

what are the major domaines of fintech

payments, lending, investment, personal finance management, insurance and capital markets

name four technologies driving fintech innovation

Big data and AI, blockchain and distributed ledgers, cloud computing, IoT and biometric technologies

what are the main drivers of fintech expansion

Technology advances, regulatory changes and institutions, and consumer demand for convenience, low cost and inclusion

what are the promises and pitfalls of digital payments?

Promises: convenience and inclusion. Pitfalls: fraud, cybersecurity threats, privacy risks, monopoly and overspending

how can fintech lending increase consumer inequality

It can expand credit access but also encourage over-indebtedness and expose consumers to weak protections

what are robo-advisors?

algorithm driven investment platforms that automate portfolio management

what is Korea’s MyData initiative in personal finance

A regulatory framework that gives individuals control over their financial data

what is digital health

The field of knowledge and practice using digital technologies to improve health

what are the main types of digital health technology

Wearables and mobile apps, telemedicine, AI-based applications and electronic health records

what determines whether a digital product counts as medical treatment

Evidence, company claims, regulatory review, professional gatekeeping and insurance payment.

what foundations support digital health adoption

Service infrastructure, social readiness, data infrastructure, interoperability, governance, trust, security and accessibility.

what is interoperability in digital health

The ability of different providers and systems to exchange and integrate data using compatible standards.

what are Korea’s strengths in digital health infrastructure

High ICT readiness, administrative and claims data, and advanced digital initiatives.

what are key limitations of Korea’s digital health system

Metropolitan hospital concentration, ageing, weak interoperability and tensions around privacy regulation.

differentiate assistive and autonomous ai healthcare

Assistive AI supports clinicians' decisions; autonomous AI makes diagnostic or treatment decisions without physician involvement.

what are the benefits and risks of telemedicine

Benefits: access, convenience and continuity. Risks: quality concerns, low digital literacy, accountability and uneven regional access.

how can digital health increase inequality

People with better devices, connectivity and literacy may gain more; older, rural and underserved groups may be excluded.

what distinguishes retail 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0

1.0: department stores. 2.0: malls and cars. 3.0: internet shopping. 4.0: AI, data and integrated online–offline retail.

how did retail evolution change consumer access

Access shifted from mainly urban physical stores to online platforms, but new connectivity, literacy and delivery gaps emerged.

what is platform concentration in retail

Market power becoming concentrated in a few platforms that integrate shopping, data, payments and logistics.

what are network effects and lock-in effects

Network effects increase platform value as users grow; lock-in raises switching costs, for example through memberships.

how do recommendation algorithms affect consumer autonomy

They reduce search costs but can reinforce preferences, biases and segmentation while limiting choice diversity.

differentiate content base and collaborative filtering

Content-based filtering uses item or preference similarities; collaborative filtering uses patterns in users' behaviour.

what is last mile delivery and why does it matter

The final delivery from a warehouse to the consumer; it shapes speed, cost and satisfaction.

how does last mile delivery create regional inequality

Remote areas may face limited coverage, delays and higher fees, while urban consumers receive more seamless service.

how can emerging retail technologies exclude consumers

AR/VR needs costly devices; cashierless stores may exclude unbanked users; AI shopping agents may reduce autonomy.

how did Korea’s retail transition differ

It was delayed but highly compressed, with rapid e-commerce development and services such as Coupang Rocket Delivery.

what does ESG stand for

Environmental, Social and Governance; it evaluates corporate impacts alongside financial performance.

how does ethical consumption differ from ESG

Ethical consumption concerns value-based consumer choices; ESG provides a framework for evaluating corporate practices.

how can digital tools promote ethical consumption

They improve access to sustainability information, supply-chain traceability, product comparisons and collective activism.

what is a carbon footprint

The total greenhouse gases released directly and indirectly by a person, organisation or product, expressed as CO₂ equivalent.

how can ESG help reduce consumer inequality

Inclusive design, transparent reporting, responsible business practices and policy support can improve access and accountability.

what is ethical elitism

When sustainable products cost more, ethical consumption becomes more accessible to higher-income consumers.

what is epistemic inequality in ethical consumption

Unequal access to, understanding of and ability to evaluate sustainability information.

what is greenwashing

Misleading or inadequately supported environmental claims that exaggerate a product's or company's sustainability.

why doesn’t transparency guarantee equal consumer choice

Information may be complex, jargon-heavy or overwhelming; consumers differ in digital, financial and sustainability literacy.

how can ESG become more inclusive and responsible

Make data accessible, simplify labels, standardise disclosures, build literacy, support SMEs and strengthen governance

what is consumer economic theory about

technology adoption is a cost-benefit calculation

what is diffusion of innovation theory about

difference in when people accept and adapt innovation, some groups might never catch up

what is technology acceptance model

there is perceived usefulness and ease of use and these together determine behavioural intention

what is behavioural economics

people dont optimise, they satisfice (satisfied with sacrifice)