Ch4-6, Exam 2 Psych

Split brain

Splitting of the corpus callosum, where transmission of information between the hemispheres is now halted

Neuroimaging techniques

CAT, MRI, PET, fMRI

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A test measuring electrical activity in the brain

Karl Lashley

• Made incisions in rat brains to try and find the neural connection place which memories are made

• Longer the incision, worse the performance

Theory of Mass Action

• The cerebral cortex works as a whole during complex learning and memory tasks

• Proven false

monozygotic twins

after egg is fertilized, makes copies of itself, but splits into two balls of cells creating genetically identical twins

dizygotic twins

more than one egg is released by the mother, and each is fertilized, so two children are born but they are not entirely genetically identical

Heritability coefficient

estimates the proportion of variability for a specific trait that can be attributed to genetic differences rather than environmental factors

Perception

cognitive process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of information in the world

Measuring Threshold

Boundary between two psychological states; line between absent of stimulus and minimal stimulus

Absolute Threshold

Minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus

Just noticeable difference

Smallest change in stimulus that a person can detect

Weber’s Law

the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity

Pupil

Regulates amount of light passing through to rear chamber of eye

Retina

Neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain

Cones

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision

Rods

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision

Fovea

Spot in retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot

Cornea

Clear dome-shaped layer that protects the iris and pupil

Light adaptation

Process which the eye becomes less sensitive to light in high illumination

Dark adaptation

Process in which the eye becomes more sensitive to light in low illumination

Lens

Transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina

Accommodation

Occurs when the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter visual focus

Nearsightedness

Distant objects appear blurry, near objects are clear - focus of light from far objects falls short of the retina

Farsightedness

Near objects are blurry, distant objects are clear - focus of light from close objects falls behind the retina

Optic chiasm

Point in which axons from the inside half of each eye cross over to project into the opposite half of the brain

Feature detectors

Neurons respond selectively to specific features of more complex stimuli

Saccadic

Jumpy eye movements, not a straight line

Smooth tracking

Ability to follow something smoothly

Microsaccadic

Small, involuntary, jerk-like eye movements that occur even when you try to fix your gaze on a single point

Apparent motion phenomena

Infer motion based on pattern of inputs

• Imagine the flipping boxes

Complementary colors

Pairs that produce gray when mixed

Afterimage

Visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed

Opponent process theory

Holds that color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs

Inattentional blindess

Inability to see fully visible objects because your attention is elsewhere

Bottom-up processing

Progression from individual elements to the whole

Phi phenomenon

Illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession

• Information about motion not available until it’s over

Binocular depth cues

Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes

Retinal disparity

Refers to the fact that objects within 25 feet will project slightly different locations/images onto left and right retinas

Pictorial depth cues

Cues about distance given by flat picture

Place theory

Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions along basilar membrane

Frequency theory

Perception of pitch corresponds rate or frequency which the entire basilar membrane vibrates

Haptic perception

perceiving by touch

Gustatory system

Sensory system for taste

What are gustatory receptors?

Taste buds, stimuli are chemical substances that are soluble

Sensory adaptation

Gradual decline in sensitivity of to prolonged stimulation

Olfactory system

The sensory system for smell

Olfactory cilia

Hairlike structures located in the upper portion of the nasal passages

Olfactory bulb

Paired neural structure that receives and processes smell, synapse with olfactory receptor axons

What part of the brain is related to touch?

Somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe

Fast pathway

Registers localized pain, fraction of a second to cortex

Slow pathway

After initial injury, through limbic system conveying less localized pain, 1-2 seconds behind fast pathway

Gate-control theory

Incoming pain sensations pass through a “gate” in the spinal cord, but can be closed to block ascending pain signals

What is the body’s natural pain killer?

Endorphins

Consciousness

Awareness of internal and external stimuli

Delta waves

Frequency less than 4, deep sleep

Theta waves

Frequency 4-7, light sleep

Alpha waves

Frequency 8-12, deep relaxation

Beta waves

Frequency 13-24, normal waking thought, alert

Level of activation

Reticular activating system determines level of alertness

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement, high frequency brain waves, dreaming

Insomnia

Chronic problems with getting adequate sleep, result in daytime fatigue and impaired functioning

Narcolepsy

Sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep

Hypnosis

Systematic procedure that typically produces heightened state of suggestibility

Zombie-robot approach

Vague things that determine our behaviors such as simple motor actions or cognitive reflexes, our conscious experience doesn’t cause it

Foot in the door

Get someone to agree by asking them for a small request first (foot is in the door/halfway there)

Face in the door

Ask something extreme first to get a person to agree to something more mundane

leptin theory

Body uses hormones called leptin as feedback signal to regulate appetite over long periods of time

Psychoactive drug

Chemical substances which modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functions

Examples of psychoactive drugs

Narcotics, opioids, sedatives, stimulants, hallucinogens, depressants

Habituation

Gradual reduction in responding

Classical conditioning

Stimulus acquires capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

What researcher is known for classical conditioning?

Pavlov, and Pavlov’s dogs

Acquisition

Initial stage of learning

Stimulus contiguity

Occurring together in time and space

Simultaneous conditioning

CS and US begin and end at same time

Short-delayed conditioning

CS begins just before US, ending together

Trace conditioning

CS begins and ends before US is presented

Neutral stimulus

Does not originally produce a response

Unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus which evokes an unconditioned response, prior to conditioning

Unconditioned response

Unlearned reaction to an US

Conditioned stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus, now has capacity to evoke CR

Conditioned response

Learned reaction to CS

Trial

Single pairing of an UC and CS

Spontaneous recovery

• Reappearance of response after being exposed to CS alone

• Second spontaneous recovery happens quicker

Higher order conditioning

Adding stimuli, higher order reasoning, occurs when CS functions as if it were US

Extinction

Gradual weakening then disappearance of CR

Stimulus generalization

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in same way to new stimulus as if it were original

Stimulus discrimination

Being able to differentiate between new stimulus and learned stimulus

Operant conditioning

Voluntary responses come to be controlled by consequences

Thorndike Law of Effect

Cat in the box, learning the mechanism to open the box to get to food. Gradually takes less and less time to escape

BF Skinner

Skinner’s box, principle of reinforcement

Reinforcement

An event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response

Fixed ratio

A reward is delivered after an unchanging (FIXED) number of responses

Variable ratio

A reward delivered after an unpredictable (VARIABLE) number of responses

Fixed interval

A schedule where the first correct response is rewarded only after a set, unchanging amount of time has passed

Variable interval

A schedule where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable and changing amount of time has passed

Shaping

Reinforcement closer and closer to desired response

Positive reinforcement

When a response is strengthened because it’s followed by presentation of rewarding stimulus

Negative reinforcement

When a response is strengthened because it’s followed by removal of negative stimulus