Solutions, Chemical Reactions, and Metabolic Pathways

Practice vocabulary flashcards covering the characteristics, classification, factors, and safety handling of solutions alongside the classifications, mechanics, and metabolic roles of chemical reactions.

Pure Substance

Matter that has a fixed composition and definite properties like mass, melting point, and boiling point, which is further classified into elements and compounds.

Mixture

Matter composed of two or more substances that are physically combined and retain their individual properties, categorized as either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Solution

A uniform homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances where one substance, the solute, dissolves evenly into another substance, the solvent.

Solute

The substance in a solution that gets dissolved and is typically present in a smaller amount.

Solvent

The substance in a solution that does the dissolving, which is present in a larger amount to ensure complete mixing and stability.

Aqueous Solution

A solution in which water serves as the solvent.

Alloy

A solid solution formed by dissolving one metal or solid into another at the atomic level, such as sterling silver composed of $92.5\%$ silver ($\text{Ag}$) and $7.5\%$ copper ($\text{Cu}$).

Gas-in-Solid Solution

A solid solution in which gas particles occupy spaces within a solid structure, such as hydrogen gas ($\text{H}_2$) absorbed into palladium metal ($\text{Pd}$).

Solubility

The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature.

Miscible Substances

Liquids that mix completely with each other in any proportion to form a homogeneous solution, such as rubbing alcohol and water.

Immiscible Substances

Liquids that do not mix or dissolve in each other, such as corn oil and water.

Like Dissolves Like

The chemical principle stating that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, and nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

Henry's Law

The law describing the relationship between gas solubility and pressure, stating that increasing the pressure of a gas above a liquid increases the solubility of the gas in that liquid.

Unsaturated Solution

A solution that contains less solute than the maximum amount capable of dissolving at a particular temperature, allowing more solute to dissolve without residue.

Saturated Solution

A solution containing the maximum possible amount of solute that can dissolve at a specific temperature, beyond which any added solute remains undissolved.

Supersaturated Solution

An unstable solution that holds more dissolved solute than normal at a given temperature, prepared by dissolving excess solute at high heat and cooling it slowly without disturbance.

Acid Rain

Precipitation formed when rainwater dissolves atmospheric sulfur dioxide ($\text{SO}_2$) and nitrogen oxides ($\text{NO}_x$), damaging ecosystems and infrastructure.

Eutrophication

An environmental process occurring when harmful dissolved substances, such as nitrates from fertilizers or industrial waste, accumulate in water bodies and lead to oxygen depletion.

Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)

An international standard that utilizes standardized pictograms, classifications, and safety sheets to communicate physical, health, and environmental chemical hazards.

Pyrophoric Liquid

A flammable liquid capable of spontaneously igniting within five ($5$) minutes after coming into contact with air.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

A standardized document containing 16 sections mandated by the GHS that provides comprehensive data regarding chemical hazards, handling, storage, PPE, and emergency spill or exposure measures.

Chemical Reaction

A process in which one or more substances undergo chemical transformation into entirely new substances exhibiting distinct properties.

Law of Conservation of Mass

The fundamental chemical principle stating that the total number of atoms for each element is conserved throughout a reaction, ensuring mass is neither created nor destroyed.

Synthesis (Combination) Reaction

A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single, more complex product, represented by the general formula $A + B \rightarrow AB$.

Exothermic Reaction

A chemical reaction that releases energy into the surroundings in the form of heat or light, warming the surroundings and having a negative enthalpy change ($\Delta H < 0$).

Endothermic Reaction

A chemical reaction that absorbs energy from the surroundings, cooling the surroundings and having a positive enthalpy change ($\Delta H > 0$).

Decomposition Reaction

A reaction where a single complex reactant breaks down into two or more simpler products via heat, light, or electricity, represented by $AB \rightarrow A + B$.

Single Replacement Reaction

A reaction where a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from a compound, represented by the general equation $A + BC \rightarrow AC + B$.

Double Replacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which the ions of two compounds exchange places to produce two new compounds, often forming a precipitate, gas, or water ($AB + CD \rightarrow AD + CB$).

Neutralization Reaction

A specific double replacement reaction occurring between an acid and a base to yield a salt and water, such as $\text{HCl}(aq) + \text{NaOH}(aq) \rightarrow \text{NaCl}(aq) + \text{H}_2\text{O}(l)$.

Combustion Reaction

A rapid, highly exothermic reaction between a fuel (such as a hydrocarbon) and oxygen gas ($\text{O}_2$) that yields carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$), and energy.

Incomplete Combustion

Combustion that occurs when oxygen availability is limited, producing dangerous pollutants like carbon monoxide ($\text{CO}$) or solid carbon ($\text{C}$) instead of carbon dioxide alone.

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down large, complex molecules into simpler ones to release usable biological energy, such as cellular respiration.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that consume energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler precursors, such as photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

The biological process in chloroplasts that converts solar radiant energy, carbon dioxide, and water into chemical energy stored in glucose ($\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$) while releasing oxygen ($\text{O}_2$).

Calvin Cycle

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that utilize the ATP and NADPH synthesized in light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide into glucose.

Cellular Respiration

The catabolic pathway occurring in eukaryotic mitochondria that oxidizes glucose ($\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP}$) to generate cellular energy.

Aerobic Respiration

An oxygen-requiring metabolic process comprising glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain, yielding approximately $36\text{ to }38$ ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)

An oxygen-independent metabolic pathway yielding only $2$ ATP per glucose molecule, producing lactic acid in human muscles or ethanol and $\text{CO}_2$ in yeast cells.

Feedback Inhibition

A metabolic control mechanism wherein the end product of a pathway halts the activity of an early enzyme once sufficient quantities have accumulated, preventing overproduction.