PSY 100, Term Test 2, Paul Whissell UofT.

Longitudinal design

Observes the same individuals of the same age over time.

Time sensitive and risk of attrition

Cross Section Design

Observes Individuals of different ages at the same time.

Cohort effect: differences due to generation rather than age

Learning

Association between Stimuli, frequency, duration, intensity and proximity. We see dark rain clouds, and we assume rain, this is something we learned after several predications. If you see a dark cloud, you will prepare for rain in the future.

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

For example: salavation at the sight of meat for dogs.

An NS and US can be paired to hardwire new pathways within the brain.

Condtioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

The response by the dog to the bell is now a CS.

Pavlov's Dogs

The first experiment that created and demonstrated the theory of classical conditioning.

Involved the conditioning of dogs to react to NS through repetition.

When you keep adding Stimuli...

...the weaker the responses eventually become.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus becomes Conditioned Stimulus.

Aversive Stimuli

The best form of learning is averse learning. If something bad has happened to you, its difficult to forget, even for the rest of your life. It could even be seconds long but itll still have a large impact.

A NS + averse event (US), are paired, NS signals CS, NS becomes elicits CR (fear or anxiety).

Fear Conditioning

Is a learning model, or the main model, for labs that work with animals.

Humans can associate things or places with fear or negative feelings. 255 McCaul Street sucks because it's the exam centre.

Places as Stimuli

Places can be signals for stimuli as well. Your body can prepare for stimuli based on the place.

The example of someone taking a drug in a new environment and the body reacting differently.

Blocking of CC

Learning is done effectively with a suprise

When you present a stimulus with a history and a stimulus without a history together, the stimulus without a history will be blocked and will not be paired with a response.

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

Little Albert Experiment

Little albert liked Albino rats. Albino rats were paired with loud noises that made Albert cry. Albert came to fear the rats and anything else that was white and furry.

A case of Stimulus Generalization.

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA)

development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association.

Develops in animals to detect potentially harmful foods.

latent inhibition

referring to a situation where there is a stimulus you have a tremendous association with, but it isn't paired with anything. To pair another stimulus with it is extremely difficult and terrible to do in a study. We generally use a novel or unfamiliar stimulus in parings, its easier.

Extinction

If we stop UCS-CS pairing, the CR will decline over time. Or, the bell can be used over and over with no food and the pairing will diminish. This is known as extinction.

This is NOT forgetting, simply another form of learning on top of the first. You have just learned where the stimulus doesn't apply.

acquisition

a bell (CS) was paired with food (UCS). As a result, the bell presentation caused a (CR) Salivation, this is known as acquisition.

Reinstatement

After extinction, the CR can return to full strength following a single UCS-CS repair. This is known as reinstatement. One re-pairing can bring the whole response back.

Spontaneous Recovery

refers to the return of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus after a period of time. The passage of time leads to the recovery of a conditioned response

Extinction in therapy

In phobias and other disorders, we sometimes have clear triggers for episodes of anxiety of fear. If you have a fear of frogs and are exposed to them constantly, your fear will go down a little each time. This involves exposing yourself to something you don't like knowingly.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Renewal

CR returns when the CS is presented in a different context than extinction.

Preparedness

Biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A previously conditioned stimulus can be used to condition a new stimulus.

Operant Conditioning (OC)

A type of learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement

Positive punishment, negative punishment.

Classical conditioning (CC) is primarily about S-S associations, Operant is seen as S-R, Stimulus to response situations.

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behaviour

Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus

Negative reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour

Positive punishment: adding an undesirable stimulus

Negative punishment: removing a desirable stimulus

Classical Conditioning (CC)

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Schedules of Reinforcement

Consists of continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

Continous reinforcement

Reinforcing every instance of a behaviour. Leads to rapid acquisition but rapid extinction.

partial reinforcement

Reinforcing only some instances of a behaviour. More resistant to extinction.

Fixed ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Buy 4 get 1 free

Variable ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (highest response rates).

After certain amount of average responses, get a reward. Gambling

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

complete assignment in next 48 hours, get a reward.

Variable interval

Reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time.

The professor says he'll post grades today, so you check your grades over and over to see the updated grades.

Observational learning

Learning by observing the behavior of others (e.g., Bandura's Bobo doll experiments).

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Children who watch aggressive videos are more likely to be aggressive after. Shown videos of being agressive to Bobo doll, children were agressive to the same doll after.

Only works with doll, children werent aggressive with other people.

Latent Learning

is learning when not being expressed, or lazy learning. Usually because of a lack on incentive. If incentives are present, learning could be revealed.

Tolman + Honzik studies

Various rats put inside of a maze, and those that are rewarded for completing the maze that are given food do the maze faster.

What are the stages of memory

Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Duration is short, and capacity is large depending on attention.

Short Term Memory (STM)

Holds the information longer than sensory, a kind of mental sketchpad where information is kept. Duration is again short but is notably longer than sensory memory

Info decays unless rehearsed.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent storage of information. Many different types of long-term memory (declarative and non-declarative).

Two forms of rehearsal

Maintenance: simple repetition

Elaborative: complex, involves relating information to other concepts.

Chunking

Chunking: You can remember more by turning a stream of items into something else. Turning a string of items into smaller bits. CBCFBIGOTNFLYOLOMMPINASA can turn into CBC, FBI, GOT, NFL, YOLO, MMPI, NASA. These items are more meaningful

Working Memory Model

differs in many ways, multiple stores allows for multi tasking. Several processes work together to manage information. WM involves manipulating information.

Newer version, more accommodating than the short-term memory. Short-term memory 2.0

Declarative memory

The cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared, (tied to hippocampus).

Episodic memory

Memories where you are the agent, something happens to you. Remembering your first day of school

Semantic memory

aren't told from your perspective, could've been told by anyone. Knowing the capital of France, general pieces of information

Non-Declarative Memory

Things you know that you can show by doing. If someone says they can play the guitar, that is not the same as playing the guitar.

Show by doing, not primarily hippocampal. Involuntary, memories you aren't aware of learning.

LTM Retrieval failures

Sometimes we have a memory but cannot retrieve it. (on the tip of your tongue). Sometimes a cue or hint can trigger retrieval (related to priming).

Schemas

Learned cognitive frameworks. Ie you know the schema of a wedding

Scripts

A script is a schema consisting of a sequence of events predicted by the individual.

Related to Schemas

Memory processes

encoding, consolidation, retrieval, rehearsal.

Serial Position Effect

Recall is best for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list.

Reconstructive Nature of Memory

Memories are not passive recordings but are actively assembled and can change over time, influenced by schemas, current goals, and new information.

Source Monitoring Errors

Difficulty recalling the source of information, potentially leading to false memories or plagiarism.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally arousing events. While confidence remains high, accuracy can decline over time.

Misinformation Effect

Exposure to post-event information can alter memory accuracy.

False Memories

Memories for events that did not actually occur, which can be inadvertently created.

Context-Dependent Memory

Memory retrieval is better when the context (environment) at retrieval matches the context at encoding.

State-Dependent Memory

Memory retrieval is better when the physiological or psychological state at retrieval matches the state at encoding.

Mood-Dependent Memory

Memory retrieval is enhanced when the mood at retrieval matches the mood at encoding.

Reminiscence Bump

A tendency to recall more autobiographical memories from adolescence and early adulthood.

Genes

Units of heredity that encode for proteins, influencing nervous system structure and function.

There are 20-25,000 different genes. Each of these genes may have multiple alternative versions (Alleles) with different functions.

Alleles

Each of these genes may have multiple alternative versions (Alleles) with different functions.

Differences in alleles can lead to differences in proteins and nervous system function.

Genetic Variation

Differences in alleles (versions of genes) can lead to variations in traits.

Heritability

statistical estimate of the proportion of the variation in a trait within a population that is due to genetic factors .

Heritability estimates increase with age for many traits, including intelligence. Heritability is context-specific and does not imply determinism.

Nature vs. Nurture

Not a debate; both genes and environment interact significantly.

Dizygotic Twins

are 50% identical genetically

Monozygotic Twins

are 100% identical genetically.

G x E Interactions

Genes can influence an individual's exposure to, or response to, environmental factors.

Genes for creativty attract you to artistic films, for example.

Reproductive fitness.

disease resistance or physical features that are attractive to potential mates. In turn, these genes for these traits will also become more common

pleiotropy

One gene regulates many traits

Intelligence

A Conceptual Variable. Intelligence is a concept we pretend exists. Could be a real thing; we use this concept to see if we can predict things from it.

General (G) Intelligence Theory

A theoretical construct representing a common factor underlying performance across various cognitive tests.

The best piece of evidence for g theory is that in school, people tend to get similar marks in different subjects

WAIS testing

It is a combination of many different tests. For example: verbal comprehension index, working memory index, perceptual organization index, processing speed index. Each of these tests, test different factors in a person.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) Scores

Typically follow a normal distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. IQ scores also depend on the environment.

Predictive Power of IQ

IQ scores are correlated with academic achievement, job performance, longevity, and health outcomes.

The Flynn Effect

The observed rise in IQ scores over generations, suggesting environmental influences. This effect may be reversing in some developed nations.

Beyond a solid environment, most treatments have failed to produce a lasting increase in cognitive ability.

The Dunning-Kruger effect

is the relationship between someone's intelligence and their ability to measure their own task competency.

Intelligent people are more critical of themselves, people at the other end of the spectrum are very confident because they are unaware of the gaps in their knowledge.

Scarcity Mentality

If "times get rough," we may see declines in IQ. Resource scarcity is associated with resource impairment. Poor cognition in turn can lead to further financial difficulties and stress. Unending loop.

Growth Mindset

Those who believe intelligence can be changed may exert more effort, may take on new challenges and may respond better to mistakes

Teachers and schools emphasize this.

Reaction time (RT)

is negatively correlated with IQ. RT is also a predictor of dementia in the elderly. IQ is negatively with correlated with reaction time.

The higher your IQ, the shorter your reaction time.

Higher IQ = Lower RT. Lower is better

Circularity in Intelligence

Jobs and schools are purposefully structured like tests. Maybe some people are just good at tests.

Variability between IQ tests should be acknowledged; you might do well on one test and not on another.

Crystallized intelligence

It includes things like vocabulary or trivia.

The older you get the more of this intelligence you may have. This may increase with age, the older you get the more you got.

Fluid intelligence

is about tasks such as rapid performance or fluid reasoning, which younger people tend to excel at and that decline with age.

The peak age for cognitive performance is around 20 to 25, in IQ tests.

Sternberg's theory of intelligence

breaks intelligence into three parts:

Analytical intelligence, like academic problem solving

Creative intelligence, imaginative and innovative problem solving.

Practical intelligence, street smarts and common sense.

Gardner's theory of intelligence

Suggests several distinct types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial).

Emotional intelligence

Is the ability to perceive, understand, and facilitate and manage emotions.

Emotional intelligence is a controversial concept; difficult to define and study. Tests of emotional intelligence have been modestly correlated with job performance, academic performance and relationship quality.

The MSCEIT

is an emotional intelligence test.

Language

It is an arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning.

Used to record and transmit info, gives us the capacity to define and solve complex problems. Affects our fitness for survival and reproduction.

is lateralized on the left hemisphere of the brain in 70 to 90% of people

Language acquisition is easiest during childhood (roughly 3-7 years), becoming more challenging later in life.

Phonemes

The elementary sounds in a language may have an inherent emotional meaning

The phoneme L tends to occur in pleasant, soft and tender scripts as well as passive words. Words with R sounds tend to occur in unpleasant and active words

Morphemes

They are the smallest units of meaning; the sounds have meaning.

Syntax

is the set of grammatical rules that control how words are put together. Varies by language. Correct syntax does not always result in comprehensible language.

Broca's Aphasia

Language disorder: comprehension is relatively intact, and speech is impaired.

Wernicke's aphasia

Language disorder: Comprehension is impaired, and speech is fluent but nonsensical.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

The structure of a language affects the speaker's perceptions and categorization of experience

Evidence for this hypothesis is mixed.