Cognitive Psychology Study Guide (Chapters 6–10)

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key definitions, theories, models, and empirical concepts across Chapters 6 through 10 of Cognitive Psychology.

Memory

The processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information about stimuli, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The process of maintaining information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information when needed.

Information Processing Model

A framework explaining how information moves sequentially through different memory systems: sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory.

Sensory Storage

A memory system that briefly retains sensory stimulation after the original stimulus disappears.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts approximately $250\,\text{milliseconds}$.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory that lasts approximately $2\text{--}5\,\text{seconds}$.

Visible Persistence

A phenomenon that directly measures how long a visual stimulus remains visible.

Informational Persistence

A phenomenon that measures how much information remains available after a stimulus disappears.

Masking

The interference that occurs when another stimulus disrupts the perception or processing of an original stimulus.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

A memory system characterized by a small capacity ($5\text{--}9$ pieces of information), short duration of approximately $20\,\text{seconds}$, linguistic coding, and forgetting driven by decay and interference.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A memory system characterized by large capacity, long duration ($50+\,\text{years}$), semantic coding, and forgetting caused by interference and retrieval difficulties.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory.

Chunking

Combining smaller pieces of information into larger, meaningful units to increase the amount of information remembered.

Decay

The loss of information over time, leading it to become less available.

Proactive Interference

A type of interference where old information interferes with learning or remembering new information.

Retroactive Interference

A type of interference where new information interferes with remembering previously learned information.

Working Memory

A cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information while performing cognitive tasks, with an updated capacity estimate of approximately $4 \pm 2$.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Boundary Extension

The tendency to mentally remember more of an object's surroundings than was actually visible.

Representational Momentum

The tendency to remember an object as having moved slightly farther in the direction it was traveling.

Explicit Memory (Declarative)

Conscious memories that can be intentionally recalled, encompassing episodic and semantic memory.

Episodic Memory

A subcategory of explicit memory dedicated to personal experiences and events.

Autobiographical Memory

Memories about one's own personal life experiences.

Semantic Memory

A subcategory of explicit memory dedicated to general knowledge, facts, and information.

Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative)

Memories that influence behavior without conscious recollection, including procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory for actions and skills, as demonstrated by patient H.M.'s ability to improve at mirror drawing.

Priming

An implicit memory phenomenon where previous exposure to information influences how one responds to it later.

Free Recall

A method of testing long-term memory that requires remembering information without any hints.

Cued Recall

A method of testing long-term memory that requires remembering information with the aid of a hint or prompt.

Recognition

A testing method that involves identifying information that was previously encountered.

Retrospective Memory

Memory focused on remembering past events or information.

Prospective Memory

Memory focused on remembering to perform an intended action in the future.

Event-Based Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform an action when a particular event occurs.

Time-Based Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform an action at a particular time.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge and creating meaning, which generally produces superior long-term retention compared to maintenance rehearsal.

Levels of Processing Theory

A theory developed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) stating that the depth of mental processing affects memory, with deeper processing yielding better retention than shallow processing.

Shallow Processing

Processing that focuses on superficial characteristics of stimuli, such as physical appearance or sound.

Deep Processing

Processing that focuses on meaning and connects incoming information to existing knowledge.

Encoding Specificity Principle

A principle formulated by Tulving and Thomson (1973) stating that memory retrieval is more successful when the conditions at retrieval match the conditions present during encoding.

Context-Dependent Memory

The finding that the physical environment or surroundings can influence memory retrieval, as demonstrated by Godden and Baddeley (1975) with divers.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

A principle identified by Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) stating that memory performance is enhanced when the type of cognitive processing used during learning matches the processing required at retrieval.

Consolidation

The physiological process through which newly acquired memories become more stable over time.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A lasting increase in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons following repeated activation.

Reminiscence Bump

A phenomenon wherein adults recall a disproportionately greater number of autobiographical memories from adolescence and early adulthood.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of emotionally significant events that individuals hold with high subjective confidence, even though confidence does not ensure accuracy.

Emotion-Induced Memory Tradeoffs

A memory effect wherein attention to emotional information improves memory for central emotional details at the expense of surrounding non-emotional details.

Reconstructive Memory

The concept that memories are not exact recordings, but are rebuilt during retrieval using existing knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

Schema

An organized structure or body of information in memory abstracted from experience that helps individuals understand and interpret new situations.

Event Schemas (Scripts)

An organized knowledge structure detailing how a particular event usually unfolds, assisting in predicting sequences in familiar settings.

Misinformation Effect

The distortion of memory that occurs when misleading information presented after an event alters a person's recollection of that event.

DRM Paradigm

An experimental procedure developed by Deese (1959) and Roediger and McDermott (1995) showing that studying lists of related words causes false recall or recognition of an unstudied critical lure.

Cognitive Economy

The principle that organizing information into conceptual categories allows people to process and store information more efficiently, reducing cognitive effort.

Classical View of Categorization

The theory that category membership is determined by a strict set of necessary and sufficient features.

Necessary Features

Characteristics that must be present for an entity to belong to a particular category.

Sufficient Features

A set of characteristics that is completely adequate on its own to establish category membership.

Typicality Effects

The empirical finding that some exemplars are judged as better, more representative category members than others based on their goodness of fit.

Prototype Approach

A model of categorization where items are classified by comparing them to a prototype, which is the typical or most representative average of a category.

Family Resemblance

A property in prototype theory where members of a category share overlapping features rather than a single set of universal defining traits.

Graded Membership

The concept that category membership is not all-or-none; rather, some members fit the category better and are more central than others.

Linguistic Hedges

Qualifying language (such as 'technically' or 'strictly speaking') that speakers frequently use when describing non-prototypical category members.

Exemplar Approach

A categorization model proposing that objects are classified by comparing them to multiple specific remembered instances rather than a single abstracted prototype.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking; the process of understanding, monitoring, and regulating your own cognitive operations.

Metamemory

Knowledge, awareness, and beliefs regarding your own memory abilities, limits, and processes.

Illusions of Knowledge

A cognitive bias where familiarity with study materials produces a false sense of understanding, leading learners to overestimate what they know.

Elaborative Interrogation

A study technique that involves asking oneself why a fact is true or how it connects to prior knowledge to facilitate deeper processing.

Interleaved Practice

A study technique involving the alternation of different topics or problem types within a single study session rather than practicing one topic repeatedly.

Testing Effect

The phenomenon where actively retrieving information through testing and quizzes strengthens long-term memory retention significantly more than passive restudying.

Distributed Practice

The practice of spacing study sessions across multiple intervals over time rather than massing practice into one cramming session.