Week one: Condensed

What is active learning?

Active learning is an instructional method that engages students in the learning process, encouraging them to participate actively through discussions, problem-solving, and collaborative projects, rather than passively receiving information.

Psychology is multidisciplinary, what does this mean?

It means that psychology draws on concepts, theories, and research methods from various fields such as biology, sociology, anthropology, and neuroscience, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

What is Empiricism?

the foundational view that all knowledge, behavior, and mental processes are acquired through direct sensory experience, observation, and environmental interaction rather than innate ideas or pure reason

What is psychology?

science of the mind and behaviour

What is science? and the five factors

using systematic observations (careful observation of the natural world) to acquire knowledge, often using empirical methods

1. Empirical 

• Based on observations/data.  

2. Systematic 

• Uses organized methods rather than random observations.  

3. Cumulative 

• New research builds on previous research.  

4. Self-correcting 

• Scientific conclusions can change when better evidence appears.  

5. Evidence-based 

• Claims should be supported by data rather than simply opinions.

What are some factors that psychology can be affected by?

• 
  Measurement problems  

• Sample limitations  

• Human behaviour being complex  

• Uncertainty  

• Ethical restrictions  

The ethics in psychological research, 5 sections

Because psychology often studies human participants, researchers have ethical responsibilities. 

1. Informed consent 

Participants should: 

• Know they are participating  

• Understand what will happen  

• Freely choose whether to participate  

2. Confidentiality 

Researchers should not make participants' personal information public without appropriate consent. 

3. Privacy 

Researchers should respect people's private spaces and information. 

4. Benefits vs. risks 

Researchers should consider whether the benefits of the research justify potential risks. 

5. Deception 

Sometimes participants aren't told the full purpose of a study because knowing could change their behaviour. 

Deception

Sometimes participants aren't told the full purpose of a study because knowing could change their behaviour. 

If deception is used, participants should receive debriefing afterward. 

Debriefing = explaining the true purpose/nature of the study to participants after the study. 

What is Anecdotal evidence?

evidence based on personal experiences or unsystematic observations

"My friend studied with music and got an A, so music must improve studying."

The problem is that one person's experience doesn't tell us whether the same thing happens generally. Scientific research instead tries to collect systematic evidence from appropriate samples.

Inductive vs. deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning

Specific observations → general conclusion

Example: You observe that:

• Student A studies regularly and does well.

• Student B studies regularly and does well.

• Student C studies regularly and does well.

You conclude: Regular studying may be associated with better academic performance. Inductive reasoning gives you a probable conclusion, not certainty

Deductive reasoning

General rule → specific prediction

Example: General idea: Students who study regularly perform better. Specific prediction:

Therefore, this particular student who studies regularly should perform better.

What is a scientific theory?

A scientific theory is a well-supported framework that explains evidence and can be used to make predictions.

Good scientific theories:

• Explain observations

• Make predictions

• Are supported by evidence

• Can be tested

• Can potentially be falsified

• Can be revised when new evidence appears

Falsifiable

there is some possible evidence that could show a claim is wrong. This is important because a scientific claim must be testable. therefore, scientific theories can change

Scientific errors - types

Easy memory trick

Type I = "I found it!" → but it's actually not there

Type II = "I didn't find it." → but it actually exists

Researchers can sometimes reach an incorrect conclusion.

Type I error = finding a relationship that isn't actually there.

Think: False positive There is no real relationship, but the researcher concludes there is one.

Type II error = failing to detect a relationship that actually exists.

Think: False negative There is a real relationship, but the researcher doesn't find it.

what are p-values and their roles?

A p-value helps researchers evaluate how likely a result would be if the null hypothesis were true.

For example: p < .05 means that, under the assumptions of the statistical test, a result this extreme would be expected by chance less than about 5% of the time.

⚠Important: A p-value does not prove that a hypothesis is true.

What is a Null hypothesis

Usually states that there is no relationship/effect

Science, facts, and values definitions and importance

Science is performed by humans, so scientists aren't completely separated from society.

Facts = information about what is/was happening in the world.

Values = beliefs about what is good, bad, desirable, or how things should be.

For example: Fact: Research finds that a particular behaviour has a certain effect.

Value: People disagree about whether society should encourage or discourage that behaviour.

Science can provide evidence about what is happening, but values often influence decisions about what should happen

What is pseudoscience

Claims presented as scientific but lacking the characteristics of science

How did psychology develop into a scientific discipline?

Psychology developed from two fields:

Philosophy (questions about the mind, knowledge, and human nature) and Physiology (studies of the nervous system, senses, and body).

Researchers began using scientific methods to study mental processes and behaviour.

What were the contributions of empiricism, Helmholtz, and psychophysics to psychology?

Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience and observation (John Locke and Thomas Reid).

Helmholtz: Studied vision, hearing, and neural impulses; measured neural impulse speed and showed our senses don't perfectly represent reality.

Psychophysics: Weber and Fechner studied the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experiences, demonstrating that perception could be measured scientifically.

Why is Wilhelm Wundt important, and what are introspection and mental chronometry?

Why is introspection critizied?

Wilhelm Wundt: Established a psychology laboratory in Leipzig in 1879, marking psychology's emergence as an independent scientific discipline.

Introspection: Carefully reporting your conscious experiences in response to stimuli to identify the elements of consciousness.

it is subjective, unverified, and unreliable as a scientific method

Mental chronometry: Measuring how long mental processes take, often using reaction time.

What is structuralism, and how did Titchener study the mind?

Structuralism: Structuralism is the first formal school of thought in psychology. It focuses on breaking down the human mind and conscious experience into their most basic, elemental parts.

Edward Titchener: Brought Wundt's approach to America and used introspection to examine conscious experiences.

What is behaviorism, and what were the contributions of Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov?

Behaviorism: Psychology should focus on observable behaviour rather than unobservable mental processes. Its goal is to explain how behaviour is learned, predicted, and controlled.

Watson: Promoted behaviorism in 1913.

Skinner: Major behaviorist.

Pavlov: Demonstrated classical conditioning, where learning occurs through associations between environmental events.

What is cognitive psychology, and why did it become important?

Cognitive psychology: Studies internal mental processes, including memory, thinking, language, attention, perception, and problem-solving.

Became increasingly important during the 1950s–1960s because behaviorism couldn't fully explain human behaviour while largely ignoring mental processes.

How did intelligence testing and applied psychology develop?

Applied psychology: Uses psychology in real-life situations (education, business, military, clinical work).

Alfred Binet: Created an intelligence test to identify students needing extra help. (problem solving and reasoning)

What is the IEDIAA

Indigenous, Equity, Diversity, Inclusion, Accessibility, and Anti-Racism.

Positionality in psychology studies

recognizing that our experiences and social positions can influence how we understand the world.

This is important in psychology because researchers and professionals aren't completely separate from the societies they study.

Equity in psychology studies

recognizing that people can experience different barriers and may need different forms of support to achieve fair opportunities.

Diversity in psychology

the presence of differences among people, including differences in backgrounds, identities, experiences, and perspectives.

Inclusion in psychology studies

creating environments where people can meaningfully participate and feel that they belong.

Accessibility in psychology studies

reducing or removing barriers that prevent people from participating.

Anti-racism in psychology studies

actively identifying, challenging, and working against racism rather than simply avoiding racist behaviour.

Microaggression

a subtle comment or behaviour that communicates an often negative or exclusionary message toward a marginalized group.

What is Gestalt’s famous quote and what does it represent?

"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

Gestalt psychologists argued that we often experience things as organized wholes, rather than as individual pieces.

Example: You see a complete picture rather than experiencing every individual colour/pixel separately.

Gestalt psychology influenced later cognitive psychology.