Psych (Chapters 1-3)

Definition of psychology

scientific study of behaviour and mental processes using observations and evidence

Biological Perspective

brain, neurons, hormones, genes, or bodily processes (behaviour changes after damage to a brain region)

Behavioural Perspective

associations, rewards, and consequences (behaviour increases after it is rewarded)

Psycho dynamic Perspective

unconscious motives or unresolved conflict (behaviour is explained through hidden conflict)

Humanistic Perspective

choice, values, personal growth, potential (person works toward personal fulfilment)

Cognitive Perspective

thought, memory, attention, perception, reasoning (strategy changes performance)

Sociological Perspective

culture, norms, groups, social context (behaviour differs across social settings)

Gestalt Tradition Perspective

perception and experience organised into patterns (someone perceives an overall pattern)

Describe the 4 goals of psychology

describe (what?), explain (why?), predict (when/whom?), control/influence (how can it be changed?)

Clinical Psychologist

assessment and treatment of disorders

Counselling Psychologist

life difficulties and emotions

Developmental Psychologist

changes across growth and development

Educational Psychologist

learning and education

Experimental Psychologist

studies behaviour using experiments

Industrial-Organisational Psychologist

behaviour in workplaces

Personality Psychologist

individual differences in traits and behavior

School Psychologist

learning and behavioural issues in school settings

Social Psychologist

how people influence one another

What is the research process

question → hypothesis → design study → select participants → collect data → analyse → draw conclusions

Case Study Method

studies one person/group in depth (detailed understanding)

Naturalistic Observation Method

observes behaviour in its normal setting (real-world behaviour)

Survey Method

asks people about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviour (efficient, some self bias)

Correlational Study Method

measures whether variables are related (can predict/identify associations)

Experiment Method

manipulates an independent variable and measures an outcome (testing cause and effect)

Positive Correlation

variables change in same direction (more study time → higher grades)

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease (more absence → lower grades)

Near Zero Correlation

little or no linear relationship (no consistent linear pattern between the variables)

Correlation Coefficient Range & Strong vs Weak

-1 (weak) —— +1 (strong)

Third-Variable Problem

correlation does not prove causation because another factor may affect both

Independent Variable

researcher manipulates or changes

Dependant Variable

outcome measures

Experimental Group

receives manipulation

Control Group

comparison group that does not receive manipulation

Confounding Variable

another factor that can explain results

Operational Definition

exact description of how a variable is measured or manipulated

Predictor Variable

variable used to predict another in correlational research

Criterion Variable

outcome being predicted/measured in correlational research

Population Sampling

entire group of people who participate

Random Sampling

how participants are selected from the population

Random Assignment

how participants are placed into experimental groups

Representative Sample

important characteristics of the population (large sample is not automatically representative)

Mean

average (sensitive to extreme values)

Median

middle value when ordered (useful when data’s skewed)

Mode

most frequent

Range

max - min

Standard Deviation

spread around mean (small = close together, large = spread out)

Normal Distribution

symmetrical, bell-shaped

List are Ethics (6)

participants understand what they agree to, participate voluntarily, have right to withdraw, information protected and researcher should minimise harm and protect vulnerable participants

Neuron Parts (7)

dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, myelin sheath, terminal buttons, glial cells, synapse

Dendrites Function

receive signals from other neurons

Cell Body (Soma) Function

maintains the cell and integrates incoming signals

Axon Function

carries electrical impulse away from cell body

Myelin Sheath Function

insulates the axon and speeds neural signals

Terminal Buttons Function

releases neurotransmitters

Glial Cells Function

support, protect, nourish neurons and produce some myelin sheath

Synapse Function

junction between communicating cells including gap crossed by chemical signals

Electrical signalling travels…

within a neuron

Communication occurs…

between neurons at the synapse

Action Potential Process

resting potential → threshold → depolarization → action potential → repolarization → refractory period → hyperpolarization

Resting Potential

neuron is not firing; inside is negative (-70mV)

Threshold

min stimulation (-55mV)

Depolarization

sodium channels open; sodium enters and inside is less negative (+30-+40)

Action Potential

brief electrical impulse travels down axon

Repolarization

potassium moves out; restoring negative internal charge

Refractory Period

brief reset period before another action potential can occur

Hyperpolarization

inside temporarily becomes more negative (-80 - -85_

All-or-none Principle

once threshold is reached a full action potential occurs, below threshold it does not (stronger stimulus does not create a larger action potential, though it can increases firing frequency)

Synaptic Transmission Steps (5)

action potential reaches terminal button → vesicles release neurotransmitters → neurotransmitters cross synaptic gap and bind to receptors (receiving cell becomes more or less likely to fire) → neurotransmitters are cleared (often by re uptake or enzymatic breakdown)

Acetylcholine (ACh) Function

muscle movement, attention, learning and memory

Dopamine Function

movement, motivation, reward, learning

Serotonin Function

mood, sleep, appetite

Norepinephrine Function

alertness, arousal, attention

GABA Function

major inhibitory neurotransmitter in brian

Glutamine Function

major excitatory neurotransmitter; learning and memory

Endorphins Function

pain regulation and pleasure

Excitatory Effect

makes receiving neuron more likely to fire

Inhibitory Effect

makes receiving neuron less likely to fire

Reuptake

sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters

Agonist

mimics or enhances a neurotransmitters action

Antagonist

blocks or reduces a neurotransmitters action

Central Nervous System (CNS) Function

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Function

nerves outside brain and spinal chord

Somatic Nervous System Function

voluntary movement and sensory info related to skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System Function

involuntary functions (heart rate, deigestion)

Sympathetic Division Function

fight or flight (prepares for action)

Parasympathetic Division Function

rest and digest (calms body and supports digestion)

Sensory Neurons

carry info from receptors → CNS

Motor Neurons

carry commands from CNS → muscles and glands

Interneurons

connect neurons withing CNS

Frontal Lobe

planning, judgement, decision making, voluntary movement, impulse control, some personality, speech production in dominant hemisphere

Parietal Lobe

touch and other bodily sensations (spatial awareness, sensory integration)

Temporal Lobe

auditory processing, memory, language comprehension

Occipital Lobe

primarily vision info

Cerebral Cortex

outer layer of cerebrum; higher level of perception, language, thinking, planning and voluntary movement

Corpus Collosum

bundle of nerve fibre connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Contralateral Control

each hemisphere primarily controls movement and receives sensory info from opposite side

Neural Platicity

nervous system can change/reorganize with development, learning, experience, or injury