human bio I exam 2

metabolism

sum of all the chemical reactions (energy transfers) that happen within an organism 

catabolism

breakdown of organic molecules that produces energy (hydrolysis)

anabolism

synthesis of organic molecules that requires energy (dehydration)

oxidation

removal of H = loss of electrons

reduction

addition of H = gain electron

glycolysis products

2 net ATP (-2+4)

2 H2O

2 pyruvate

2 NADH

citric acid cycle products

6 CO2

2 ATP (from 2 GTP)

8 NADH

2 FADH2

ETS products

32 ATP

4 H2O

aerobic + anaerobic products

36 ATP

6 H2O

6 CO2

krebs cycle: what happens to pyruvate

loses 1C —> acetyl coa (2C)

krebs cycle: what happens to acetyl coa

joins with oxaloacetic acid (4C)—> citric acid (6C)

krebs cycle: what happens to citric acid

loses 1 c —> ketoglutaric acid (5C)

krebs cycle: what happens to ketoglutaric acid

loses 1 C —> succinyl coA (4C)

krebs cycle: what happens to succinyl coA

reconfigured into oxalocetic acid (4C)

integumentary system functions

sensation

excretion

protection

body temperature regulation

synthesis of vitamin D

convective

solid contacting solid

conductive

via gases & liquids

evaporative

neural regulation of sweat glands

synthesis of vitamin D steps

modified cholesterol —> cholecalciferon (inactive) —> intermediate product —> calcitriol (active)

epidermis

outermost layers of skin made up of stratified squamous epithelium

thin skin thickness

0.10 to 0.15 mm

thick skin thickness

0.5 to 4.5 mm

keratinocytes function

• synthesize and accumulate keratin (mechanical durability)

• produce lamellar granules (waterproofing)

most superficial layer of epidermis (1)

stratum corneum

2nd most superficial layer of epidermis

stratum lucidum

3rd most superficial layer of epidermis

stratum granulosum

4th most superficial layer of epidermis

stratum spinosum

most deep layer of epidermis

stratum basale

melanin production where and from what?

• in melanosomes

• aa tyrosine

yellow-red pigment

pheomelanin

brown-black pigment

eumelanin

localized area of redness

erythema

decreased oxygen content in blood

cyanosis

pigment in blood

hemoglobin

dermis layers

papillary (dermal papillae + vascular areolar tissue) + reticular

hypodermis

underlying subcutaneous layer of adipose and areolar connective tissues = NOT a part of integumentary system

hairless skin

glabrous

nociceptors

free nerve endings sensitive to painful stimuli

nails functions

protection, limit distortion, tools

base of nail where blood vessels are not visible

lunular

visible portion of the nail

nail body

epidermal layer just below nail body

nail bed

deep epithelial fold, contains stratum basale that gives rise to the nail

nail root

cuticle

eponychium

vellus hair

small short and delicate (transparent = no melanocytes)

terminal hair

large, coarse and pigmented (melanocytes)

hair matrix

location of fast dividing epithelial cells

hair papilla

capillary bed entering ingrowing hair for metabolically active cells 

hair root

still metabolically active cells

hair shaft

fully dead keratinized cells

smooth muscle attached to each follicle

arrector pili muscle

functions of skeletal system

support

movement

protection

metabolic function

long bones example

arms/legs

flat bones examples

skull pelvic

trabeculae

thin lattice structure that contains lamellae and osteocytes + pores on its surface (for canaliculi)

red bone marrow

site of hematopoiesis, surrounds trabeculae

yellow bone marrow

site of adipose storage, only found in medullary cavity of long bones (converted from RBM by adulthood)

Haversian Canal

canal for blood vessels

Perforating Canal

transfers blood vessels which connect haversian canals 

Osteon:

cylindrical unit of concentric circles of lamellae & osteocytes trapped in lacunae

bone composition

98% ECM

2% bone cells

skeletal ECM composition

1/3 collagen fibers

2/3 calcium salts

ground substance

bone proteoglycan

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

immature bone cell that forms ECM

osteoblasts

mature bone cell that maintains ECM

osteocyte

canaliculi

canals connecting osteocytes that forms a mass network to share nutrients and get rid of waste

multinucleate cell that breaks down ECM

osteoclast

intramembranous ossification dates

starts ~8 weeks of embryonic dev

ends ~2 years

membrane-covered gaps between infant's skull bones that allow for passage through birth canal and for rapid brain growth

fontanel

early embryonic tissue that will give rise to connective tissue

mesenchyme

disorganized bone

woven bone

endochral ossification dates

starts ~8-12 weeks of embryonic development

ends early adulthood

scar remnant of plate

epiphyseal line

plate of hyaline cartilage remaining at metaphysis

growth/epiphyseal plates

layer of non-proliferative chondroblasts

reserve zone

layer of rapidly dividing chondroblasts (forming cartilage matrix)

zone of proliferation

layer of enlarging chondroblasts

zone of hypertrophy

layer of dead chondrocytes being calcified

zone of calcification

vitamin C importance

required for normal collagen synthesis in osteoblasts

not enough calcium in blood

parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts

too much calcium in blood

calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts

androgens + estrogens

increase bone formation at growth plate by stimulating osteoblast activity

growth hormone

stimulates cell growth and division

thyroid hormone

stimulates cell metabolism and osteoblast activity

closed fracture

completely internal

open fracture

projects through skin

brain + spinal cord

central nervous system

all nervous tissue outside CNS

PNS

neurons that carry info TO the CNS

sensory/afferent

neurons that carry info FROM the CNS

motor/efferent

sensory somatic

info about external world

visceral sensory

info about the internal systems

motor somatic

voluntary control of skeletal mucle

motor visceral

involuntary control of smooth and cardiac muscle, glands

neural tissue distribution

50% neurons

50% neuroglia

CSF def

clear fluid that constantly circulates in CNS

cerebrospinal fluid functions

• Removal of waste

• Immune protection

• Support & protection

• Circulation of nutrients

BBB def

highly selective permeable membrane due to the action of specialized capillaries and neuroglia that tightly regulate what enters CSF from plasma

white matter

myelinated axons

gray matter

unmyelinated axons, somas, dendrites