Learning Theories, Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, thinking, language development, and theories of intelligence.

Learning

The process of acquiring through experiences, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Conditioned stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the unconditioned stimulus) and other irrelevant stimuli.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Reinforcement

A consequence that strengthens a response, making it more likely to occur.

Punishment

A consequence that weakens a response, making it less likely to occur.

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies an intrinsic, unlearned biological need, such as food or water.

Secondary reinforcer

A stimulus that is not intrinsic and whose value is learned, such as money, praise, or attention.

Fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after a specified, set number of behaviors (such as buying $10$ coffees).

Variable-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, random number of behaviors (such as playing slot machines or fly fishing).

Fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs for a behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed (such as Tuesday discount prices).

Variable-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs for a behavior after an unpredictable, random amount of time (such as checking for a Facebook response).

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a certain behavior.

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire similarly when performing a behavior and when watching another perform the same behavior.

Thinking (Cognition)

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that help to simplify thinking.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.

Heuristic

A simpler problem-solving strategy that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error prone.

Insight

A sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid, long-lasting autobiographical memory of the moment a person learns about a surprising, shocking, or emotionally significant event.

Confirmation bias

The tendency that predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our preconceptions.

Fixation

An obstacle, such as a mental set, that may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgment.

Belief perseverance

Occurs when we cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that proves these beliefs are wrong.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, which sways decisions and judgments.

Intuition

Analysis 'frozen into habit' that is usually adaptive, enables quick reactions, and flows from unconscious processing.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Creative thinking that expands the number of possible problem solutions by diverging in different directions.

Convergent thinking

Thinking that narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Robert Sternberg's 5 components of creativity

Expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment.

Language

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive sound units in language.

Morphemes

The smallest language units that carry meaning.

Grammar

A system of rules that enables humans to communicate with one another.

Semantics

The set of rules for how we derive meaning from sounds in language.

Syntax

The set of rules for how we order words into sentences.

Receptive language

An infant's ability to understand what is said to them, which begins around $4\text{ months}$ of age.

Productive language

An infant's ability to produce words, which begins around $12\text{ months}$ of age.

Critical period

A childhood stage representing a crucial window for mastering certain aspects of language before the language-learning window closes.

Intelligence

The mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

General intelligence (g factor)

Charles Spearman's theory that humans have one underlying general intelligence at the heart of everything a person does, where distinct mental abilities correlate and cluster together.

Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence

The perspective that intelligence consists of $8$ multiple distinct abilities that come in different packages.

Analytical intelligence

Academic 'school smarts' focused on traditional academic problem-solving.

Creative intelligence

'Trailblazing smarts' characterized by the ability to generate novel ideas.

Practical intelligence

'Street smarts' characterized by skill at handling everyday tasks.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Intelligence test

A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores.

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogy tests.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving unfamiliar logic problems.

Declarative memory

Memory for things you know and can consciously tell others, consisting of episodic and semantic memory.

Episodic memory

A subtype of declarative memory for personal experiences, such as remembering your first day of school.

Semantic memory

A subtype of declarative memory for general knowledge and facts, such as knowing the capital of France.

Nondeclarative memory

Memory for things you know and can show by doing, which includes skill learning and priming.

Skill learning

A type of nondeclarative memory involving procedural knowledge, such as knowing how to ride a bike.

Priming

A nondeclarative memory phenomenon where a person is more likely to use a word or concept they have heard recently.