Thinking, Decisions, Intelligence, and Language

thought

an extension of perception and memory. Mental representations are formed, recalled, and manipulated

concepts

mental representations of a category; we often recognize an object as a member of a particular group or model of the world

schemas

A mental framework or cognitive structure in long-term memory that helps you organize and interpret the world

are cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, and process information, formal blueprint

ex: when you walk into a restaurant, you know to expect a menu, table, food, etc

exemplar theory

we categorize by comparing the image to other instances stored in our memory of members within the category and make a judgment about inclusion. A way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership

prototype theory/model

concepts are defined by a prototype or the most typical member of a class. A way of thinking about concepts: within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category. We then categorize by looking at a prototype and comparing the object to this main representation of the group.

framing

how a problem is posed may change the decision making tasks and solutions

prospect theory/loss aversion

The risk we are willing to take depends on whether it is to avoid a loss or achieve a gain. It is more important to avoid losses than achieve comparable gains.

algorithm

well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem

hypothesis testing

make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution

mental simulation

mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem

inductive reasoning

taking specific observations and applying it to a general rule

mental set

tendency to stick to solutions which have worked in the past

functional fixedness

tendency to rely on a function for an object and ignore other possible uses

conformation bias

seeking evidence to confirm what we already believe

distraction by irrelevant information

people often get sidetracked and it detracts from effective problem solving

unnecessary constraints

we put restrictions on our problem solving which do not actually exist

insight

sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error (AHA experience)

decision-making

attempting to select the best alternative among several options

too many options make it harder to decide

problem-solving

finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal

deductive reasoning

draw conclusions from a set of assumptions; the conclusion is true if the premise is true

syllogism

form of deductive reasoning consists of 2 premises and a conclusion

belief bias: people are more likely to accept conclusions if they are believable as opposed to whether the argument is logical.

compensatory decision models

Allows attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes

non compensatory decision models

do not allow some attributes to compensate for the other; bottom line decision making

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that the odds of an event increase if the event has not occurred recently

additive model

rating the attributes of each alternative and selecting the one which has the highest sum

elimination by aspects model

gradually eliminate options whose attributes fail to satisfy a minimum criteria

conjunction fallacy

Basic flawed assumption that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event.

heuristics

shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions

Can be useful and more successful than expected but can lead to faulty reasoning if we fail to take other information into account, such as the base rate (how frequently an event occurs).

availability heuristics

decision making based on the fact that things that are easily recalled seem to be typical/common.

representative heuristics

placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to one’s prototype for that category

decision making and the brain

significant involvement in the prefrontal cortex related to our judgment.

Damage to this part of the brain can lead to riskier decisions.

 People with prefrontal lobe damage do not show emotional reactions during risky decision making.

 Insensitivity to future consequences

 Greater activation in prefrontal lobe in healthy individuals

 Similar effects in substance-dependent individuals

language

system of symbols that convey meaning

rules of combination that allow for communication

linguistic relativity (Benjamin Whorf)

-one’s language determines one’s thoughts

universal grammar (Chomsky)

Humans possess an inborn language mechanism that facilitates language learning, if appropriately exposed to the necessary “input”

theory proposing that humans possess innate blueprint related to the acquisition of language.

phonemes

smallest units of sound which can be distinguished; change in sound can alter meaning

 Initial phonemes: “c” at or “b” at.

 Middle phonemes: b “i” t or b “a” t

 Hard-wired to sort input from 20-80 phonemes.

 Lose by 10-12 months if not exposed

morphemes

smallest units of meaning in a language

“cat” or “bat” “un-friend-ly” “chair(s)”

semantics

understanding the meaning of words and word combinations

syntax

the structure of a language, underlying rules of order/function for how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

overregularizations

grammatical rules incorrectly generalized to “exception” cases

 Examples: He “goed” to the park; He “bringed” the cake to the party

fast mapping

children may add words to their vocabularies after one exposure

overextensions

one word is over applied to a broader range of objects or actions

ex: all animals are “doggie”

under extensions

one word is incorrectly believed to apply to only one member of a group or classification. Example: “sissy” is the only sister that exists

expressive (productive) language

ability to produce a language

receptive language

ability to comprehend, process, and integrate meaning of language

stages of language development

-Crying

-Cooing: vowel like noises

-Babbling: consonant/vowel: ba ba; da da

-First Words

-Holophrases: simple word conveys meaning

-Telegraphic Speech: “content”word sentences

-Grammatic Speech

-By age 6 learn average of 15 words per day, vocabulary of 8,000-14, 000 words

-Around this age children acquire metalinguistic awareness: the capacity to assess the different uses of language. Example: homonyms (read/red)

nonverbal communication

 Vocal intonation: stress, pitch & volume

 Body language: crossed arms, sitting up

 Gestures

 Physical Distance

 Facial Expressions

 Touch

the learning theory of language acquisition

believes that language is learned based on modeling, imitation, exposure and reinforcement (behaviorist theory) (RIME)

 Flaws with this notion:

 Children acquire language with ease, not broad variations

 Adult speech is often sloppy; children acquire basic rules/structures anyways

 Children’s speech is not a mechanical play back of adult speech

nativist theory of language development

humans are neurologically prewired to learn language

interactionist theory of language development

both biology and experience make important contributions to language development

intelligence

the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges

alfred binet, aptitude, achievement

developed intelligence tests to identify slow learners to develop remedial programs

 Aptitude: ability to learn or gain proficiency in an area

 Achievement: measures the amount of information a person has acquired

mental age

based on common content knowledge and ability not chronological age

flynn effect

James Flynn found that from one generation to the next there have been steady gains in IQ scores cross culturally. Dutton et al (2016) research indicates that the Flynn effect may have stabilized.

environmental influences that effect human intelligence

 Prenatal factors: Parents’ nutrition and intake of substances, including drugs

 Postnatal factors: Family, social class, education, nutrition, cultural beliefs about the value of education, and the person’s intake of substances, including drugs

Wechsler’s view of intelligence

“The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his/her environment.”

Intellectual Disability/Intellectual Developmental Disorder

is a disorder with onset during the developmental period that includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning deficits in conceptual, social, and practical domains.

 Multiple causes of intellectual disability

 Organic: over 100 single genetic traits can result in intellectual disabilities

 Environmental: teratogens (fetal alcohol syndrome; poor nutrition, disease)

conceptual skills

language and literacy, money, time, and number concepts

social skills

interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naivete (i.e. wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized

practical skills

activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules.

giftedness

Generally believed to be those with an IQ of > 130 (Upper 2-3% of the population)

Characteristics

 Precocious; master things earlier

 Teachers may not identify them correctly

 Gifted vs “Profoundly Gifted” distinction

 May have exceptional potential in visual/performing arts, leadership traits or empathy

 Acceleration not current recommendation

Winner notes 3 components of giftedness:

 Precocity: master acts earlier

 March to own drummer: learn in qualitatively different ways

 Passion to master: driven to understand a domain

more introverted and socially isolated

self fulfilling prophecy

if we expect something to occur in a certain way our expectations will make it more likely to happen.

stereotype threat

a person experiences stress or anxiety because they fear confirming a negative stereotype about their social group

heritability coefficient

the statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people’s IQ scores that can be explained by differences in their genes

 Current estimates are around 50% for intelligence

reaction range

-genes set the limits on one’s intellectual potential

-quality of the environment influences where the scores fall within the range

fluid intelligence

the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences without using prior knowledge; solve novel problems; the “processing part” of the brain; reasoning ability, memory capacity and speed of processing. Textbook compares it to working memory

crystallized intelligence

the ability to retain and apply knowledge that was acquired through experience to problem solving. Textbook compares to long term memory.

Sternberg’s three facets of intelligence

creative, analytical, practical (CAP)

practical intelligence

finding solutions encountered for problems confronted in every day life

analytical intelligence

abstract reasoning, good test taking skills

creative intelligence

generate new ideas, solutions

emotional intelligence (Mayer and salovey)

 Ability to motivate oneself and control impulses

 Ability to persist in the face of frustration

 Ability to keep distress from overwhelming the ability to think