Psychlogy unit 2 Perception & memory

The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events.

Perception

Is a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with the small sensory details and then building up to a complete perception

Bottom-Up Processing

Involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations.

Top-Down Processing

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

Selective attention

Our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli.

Cocktail Party Effect

An individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption.

Change Blindness

Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us.

Schemas

A tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others based on experiences and expectations

Perceptual Set

We perceive whole objects or figures rather than just a collection of parts.

Gestalt Psychology

Refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground).

Figure Ground

Visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Binocular Depth Cues

When each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face.

Retinal Disparity

When our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object.

Convergence

Visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye.

Monocular Depth Cues

A depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away

Relative Clarity

A visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller.

Relative Size

A visual cue where objects positioned higher up in your field of view are perceived as being farther away than lower objects.

Relative Height

The way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance.

Texture Gradient

A depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.

Linear perspctive

Occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

Interposition

Our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes.

Perpetual constancies

Our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes

Shape Constancy

Our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to grow or shrink.

Size Constancy

Ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions

Color Constancy

The perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement

Apparent Movement

The first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain.

Encoding

The process of retaining information in the brain over time

Storage

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Retrieval

Describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory.

Multi-Store Model

The initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most.

Sensory memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades

Iconinc Memory

Type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

Echoic Memory

Temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity.

Short-Term Memory

The stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts.

Long-Term Memory

Form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short -term and long-term memories combine.

Working memory

Component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information. It consists of two parts.

Phonological loop

Memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units. This technique helps to:

Chunking(Grouping)

Long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. _______ is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Long-Term Potentiation(LTP)

Type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

Effortful Processing

The unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks

Automatic Processing

Proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered.

Levels of Processing Model

A basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning.

Shallow Encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge.

Deep Encoding

Organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

Hierarchies ( grouping)

Techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling information by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

Mnemonics

Mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations.

Method of Loci

Involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

Explicit Memories

Type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world.

● Knowledge of concepts, words, symbols, and meanings.

● Information is independent of personal experience and context.

Semantic Memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events.

Episodic Memory

Type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life.

Autobiographical

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point.

Prospective Memory

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically.

Implicit Memories

Type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically.

Procedural Memory

Learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks

Massed Practice Cramming

The phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session.

Spacing Effect “Distributed Practice”

Learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

Maintenance rehearsal

Memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge.

Elaborative Rehearsal

The tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

Serial Position effect

Phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle

Recency Effect

Stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind.

Retrieval Cues

Type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieving information from memory spontaneously).

Recall

Type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented.

Recognition

When you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it.

Context-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

State-Dependent Memory

The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing.

Testing Effect

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory.

Metacognition

Graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time.

The Forgetting Curve

Occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding.

Encoding Failure

Occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information.

Proactive Interference

Occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information.

Retroactive Interference

Common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge.

Source Amnesia

Memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact.

Anterograde Amnesia

Memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

Retrograde Amnesia

The phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4.

Infantile Amnesia

Progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness.

Repression

The process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed.

Constructive Memory

Happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events.

Misinformation Effect

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.

Executive functions

Cognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps.

Convergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Divergent Thinking

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution.

Algorithms

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that simplify decision-making by reducing the cognitive burden.

Heuristics

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

Availability Heuristic

Cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases.

Representativeness Heuristic

Cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge.

Schemas

“Aha!” moment

Insight

Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward

Hill Climbing

Break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem

Subgoals or Means-End Analysis

Start with a solution/goal and figure out how to get there

Working Backwards

One solution after another is tested; time consuming

Trial and Error

Put problem aside and engage in an unrelated task before coming back

Incubation

Usually computer programs used to solve specific problems; however, sometimes this involves rigid sets that could hinder finding solutions

Expertise/Artificial Intelligence

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts.

Prototypes

The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas.

Assimilation “Adding to Existing"

The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Accommodation "Adjusting"