AP Psychology Unit 3 Vocab

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment

Associative Learning

A process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together

Habituation

Occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit to a repeated or enduring stimulus

Classical Conditioning

A learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed

Unconditioned Response

A natural and automatic reaction that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evoked a conditioned response

Conditioned Response

A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus

Acquisition

The initial learning of an association

Extinction

The process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction does not erase the association but supresess it temporarily

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience

Taste Aversion

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things

Biological Preparedness

The innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be followed

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like, such as food or water

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like because they’re connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior or skill

Instinctive Drift

Animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training

Superstitious Behavior

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for a behavior influencing the rate and persistence for that behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior everytime it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to predictable patterns of behavior

Variable Interval

Reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with minimal pauses

Scalloped Pattern

This pattern forms a “scalloped” curve on a graph, illustrating how anticipation of reinforcement influences response timing, with subjects optimizing their efforts based on the expected timing of rewards

Variable

Change or vary

Learned Helplessness

A belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation

Social Learning Theory

Theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes, in learning from others in social contexts

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of others actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself

Insight Learning

A sudden understanding of a problem or situation that leads to a solution without prior trial and error, often accompanied by a feeling of “aha” or realization

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment