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Persuasion

The process by which a message influences one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A model stating that people process persuasive messages via two routes: central (logical, effortful) and peripheral (indirect, emotional, shortcut-based).

Central route

Route of persuasion that requires logical thinking and careful evaluation of the quality of an argument.

Peripheral route

Route of persuasion that relies on incidental, easy-to-process cues and emotional appeals rather than argument quality.

Central route attitudes

Attitudes formed via the central route are stronger, longer-lasting, more resistant to counterarguments, and better predictors of behavior.

Peripheral route attitudes

Attitudes formed via the peripheral route are weaker, temporary, easily changed, and poor predictors of behavior.

Primacy effect

The information presented first is most memorable and influential because there is less competing information.

Recency effect

The information presented last is most memorable and influential because it is more accessible in short-term memory.

Credibility

The extent to which a person is perceived as an expert and trustworthy.

Halo effect

Cognitive bias leading people to assume one positive quality means others are also positive.

Motivated reasoning

Active, effortful thinking used to justify a preferred conclusion, selectively attending to and evaluating information.

Attitude inoculation

The process of building resistance to persuasion through small attacks on beliefs, enabling people to counter a larger later attack.

Norm of reciprocity

Social expectation that when someone does something for us, we should do something in return.

Foot in the door technique

Getting a person to agree to a small request makes them more likely to agree to a larger request later, due to consistency.

Door in the face technique

Starting with a large unreasonable request that is refused, then making a smaller request that was the real goal.

Social proof

Looking to others' behaviors to determine what is correct, safe, or desirable, especially when uncertain.

Collective

Two or more people together engaging in a common activity with little direct interaction.

Group

Two or more people interacting with one another and dependent on each other to reach a common goal.

Interdependence

The extent to which group members depend on each other to reach a common goal.

Social facilitation

The presence of others increases arousal, enhancing dominant responses: improving performance on simple tasks and impairing it on difficult tasks.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Performance improves with some arousal but declines when arousal becomes too high.

Evaluation apprehension

Concern about being judged by others, which increases arousal.

Distraction conflict

Being distracted from a task by an audience.

Social loafing

Reduction in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively compared to working individually.

Ringelmann effect

The tendency for individual group members to become less productive as group size increases.

Group polarization

Tendency of group discussion to move members toward a more extreme version of their average initial position.

Groupthink

A group decision-making dysfunction where the desire for agreement overrides consideration of alternatives.

Deindividuation

Reduced sense of being distinct and identifiable in a group, leading to uncharacteristic behavior and reduced personal accountability.

Individuation

Focusing attention on the self and being self-aware; the opposite of deindividuation.

Ingroup

A group we experience as 'us', forming the basis of social identity theory.

Stereotype

Beliefs about traits, attributes, and behaviors of members of various groups.

Prejudice

An affective or emotional attitude toward someone because of their group membership.

Discrimination

Differential treatment of others based on membership in a group.

Benevolent prejudice

A compliment with a catch: praising a marginalized group's traits while using them to justify keeping them out of power.

Hostile sexism

Explicit judgment toward women who do not fit prescribed gender stereotypes.

Institutional discrimination

Discrimination built into organizational rules, policies, and practices that distribute opportunities unequally.

Modern racism

Negative belief system toward people of color coexisting with rejection of overt racism, such as believing discrimination is no longer a serious obstacle.

Subtle racism

Implicit or automatic negative behavior toward other races based on learned associations.

Illusory correlation

Perceived link between two unrelated events that occur together, often because they are memorable.

Outgroup homogeneity

Perception that members of an outgroup are all identical to each other.

Ultimate attribution error

Explaining outgroup negative behavior as internal traits and ingroup negative behavior as external factors.

Realistic group conflict theory

Prejudice arising from perceiving an outgroup as threatening resources or the ingroup's well-being.

Relative deprivation theory

Anger from believing you receive less than you deserve compared to others, often leading to scapegoating outgroups.

Stereotype threat

The feeling that you could be judged by a negative stereotype of your group or might confirm it, causing stress and anxiety.

Stigma

An identity that is devalued by society.

Contact hypothesis

Increasing contact between groups reduces prejudice, but only the right type of contact (equal status, interdependent, superordinate goals) works.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm others who do not want to be harmed.

Hostile aggression

Aggression driven by anger or frustration, with the goal of hurting the other person.

Instrumental aggression

Aggression used as a tool to obtain something else, such as money, power, or status.

Reactive aggression

Aggression that occurs as a knee-jerk reaction to provocation or insult.

Honor culture

A society where reputation and toughness are most valued, and responding aggressively to insults is seen as necessary.

Social learning theory

Theory that we learn behaviors by observing others and through rewards and punishments.

Revised frustration-aggression theory

Theory that frustration leads to aggression only when it creates anger and aggression cues are present.

Weapons effect

Finding that seeing weapons increases aggression in people who are already angry.

Catharsis

Venting anger to reduce aggression; research shows it does not reduce anger and can increase aggression.

Deradicalization

The process of helping someone step away from extremist beliefs and give up violence as a solution.

Social rejection

When someone is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or interaction.

Explaining during apology

Explaining one's behavior during an apology, which undermines its sincerity.