BIO 201 Test 1 (chapters 1-4) Latest updated questions and answers + rationales - Grand Canyon University

Anatomy

studies structure of body parts and how they relate to one another

Gross Anatomy

study of large structures

surface anatomy

studies structures as they relate to the surface

cytology

study of cells

histology

study of tissues

embryology

studies developmental changes that occur before birth

chemical level

atoms form to combine molecules

tissues

groups of similar cells that have a common function

cellular level

cells are made up of molecules

organ level

organs are made up of different types of tissues

homeostasis

point of dynamic (changing) equilibrium; body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment despite ever changing conditions

set point

level/range of "normal" for whatever variable is being considered

ex: blood glucose levels

receptor

sensor that monitors environment and responds to changes by sending information to the control center

control center

determines set point; analyzes input and determines appropriate response

effector

provides means for control center's response to the stimulus

What is the correct order of the components of the loops for homeostasis?

stimulus, receptor, afferent pathway, control center, efferent pathway, effector, response

Negative feedback

once stimulus occurs, and the control center and effector return the body to the normal position, stimuli stop as to not over-fix the problem

ex: blood glucose-once glucose levels return to normal, the stimulus for either raising blood glucose or lowering it ends

Negative feedback is the most common occurrance of homeostatic balancing

Positive feedback

happens in infrequent events that don't need continual adjustment

ex: giving birth-oxytocin is released which causes contractions to intensify, causing more oxytocin to be released, causing baby to eventually be expelled. Once baby is born, the stimulus for oxytocin to be released is shut off

neural (nervous system control)

quick, short lived, electrical signals

ex: allows you to get out of the way of danger quickly

hormonal (endocrine control)

chemicals sent out in blood stream; slower process that takes multiple steps; effects are more widespread and longer lasting because as long as the hormones are in the bloodstream, they affect the body

ex: growth, reproductive capability

axial

makes up main axis of body, includes head, neck, and trunk

appendicular

consists of appendages/limbs of body

superior (cranial)

toward the head/upper end of body

ex: the head is superior to the body

inferior (caudal)

away from the head/towards the lower part of the body

ex: naval is inferior to the chin

anterior (ventral)

toward or at front of body

ex: the breastbone is anterior to the spine

posterior (dorsal)

toward back of body/behind

ex: heart is posterior to the breastbone

medial

toward middle of body/inner side

ex: heart is medial to the arm

lateral

away from middle of body

ex: arms are lateral to chest

intermediate

between medial and lateral structure

ex: collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

proximal

closer to origin of body part or point of attachment of limb to trunk

ex: elbow is proximal to wrist

distal

farther from origin of body part/attachment of limb to trunk

ex: knee is distal to the thigh

superficial (external)

toward/at body surface

ex: skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles

deep (internal)

away from body surface/more internal

ex: lungs are deep to the skin

What are the trace elements in the body?

Copper and Fluorine

Sagittal plane

vertical plane that divides body into left and right

frontal plane

vertical; divides body posterior/anterior (front and back)

transverse/horizontal plane

horizontal; divides body into top and bottom

atoms

have protons and neutrons in nucleus; electrons in outer cloud

Are atoms electrically negative, positive, or neutral structures?

neutral

What determines if an atom is stable?

if the outermost shell is full of electrons (either 0, 2, 8)

Ions

atoms who have lost/gained electrons

How does an atom become an ion?

Ex: Na has 11 electrons/protons. This is an uneven number of electrons to have in its rings outside, so it needs to get rid of one to be stable

An ion is any atom that gets rid of or gains electrons in order to be stable

What are the major elements?

H, C, N, O

What are the lesser elements?

Na, K, Mg, Fe, Cl, P, S, I, Ca

What does major element mean?

They are the elements most commonly found in the body

cations

carry positive charge

ex: Na+

Sodium has 11 p and 11 electrons; it needs to lose 1 electron or gain 7 protons to be stable, but it is easier to lose 1 electron than gain 7 protons. So it is now extra positive=Na

anions

carry negative charge

ex: Cl-

Cl has 17 protons and 17 electrons; it is easier to add an electron than to give one away=Cl-

polyatomic ions

may be cations or ions; charged ion composed of two or more ions covalently bonded

ex: OH-, HCO3-

free radicals

destructive substances because they have an unpaired electron; you have to keep levels of free radicals; they disrupt proteins, nucleic acids, lipids in order to find a mate for their electron

isotope

structural variation of an atom; have the same number of protons and electrons, but different number of neutrons

ex: Carbon has several isotopes, 12C, 13C, 14C

what removes free radicals?

peroxisomes; Vitamins C and E decrease

compound

when two or more different kinds of atoms bind

ex: NaCl

What types of bonds can compounds have?

ionic and covalent

Ionic bond

electrons are lost or gained

ex: NaCl

Covalent bond

electrons are shared

Polar

electrons pulled more toward one atom forming dipole (Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms); polar things only attract to other polar things, they can't attract to non-polar things

Non-polar

Electrically balanced molecules

Solutions

homogenous mixture

Solute

what is being dissolved

solvent

what you are dissolving into (in the body, water is almost always the solvent)

How do we express solution concentrations?

in percents and moles

percentages of solution concentrations

percent of solution that is solute

How much does a mole equal?

1 mole=6.02x10 to the 23 particles

1 mole of glucose = 1 mole of glucose over 1 liter of solution

moles tells you how many moles of solute are in a liter of solution

What is the difference between organic molecules and inorganic molecules?

Organic molecules contain carbon, inorganic don't

HOH

water; polar molecule; H2O can absorb heat or get rid of heat and still remain the same temperature

Negative pole

oxygen

positive pole

hydrogen

hydrogen bonding

intermolecular bonding in water; relatively positive hydrogen of one molecule attracted to relatively negative oxygen of another; reason for surface tension

What is the importance of water in the body?

it can get rid of heat or absorb heat and still remain the same temp; when water goes from liquid to gas, a lot of heat is liberated; lubricates joints, cushions, serous fluids

What percentage of the body is water?

92%

Acids

donate proton; gets rid of hydrogen ion

ex: hydrogen ion, H+

base

takes in hydrogen ion; releases hydroxide

ex: attract proton H+, release OH-

What is neutral on the pH scale?

7

what is considered acidic on the pH scale?

below 7

what is considered basic on the pH scale?

above 7 (alkaline)

Does a higher H+ concentration make for a lower pH or higher?

a higher H+ concentration makes for a lower pH and greater acidity

What is the optimal pH for blood?

7.35-7.45

How is pH calculated?

at a pH of 7, the number of hydrogen ions equals the number of hydroxyl ions; solutions with a pH below 7 have hydrogen ions that outnumber the hydroxyl ions; a solution with a pH of 6 has ten times the number of hydrogen ions as hydroxyl ions as a solution with pH of 7

What is a buffer?

minimizes pH changes in a solution by releasing ions (acting as acids) when pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions (bases) when pH drops.

What determines wether a compound is organic or inorganic?

Organic has carbon backbone

What are 4 important classes or organic compounds?

carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

What are the different parts of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

What are the different parts of lipids?

triglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids

What are the different parts of protein?

amino acids, enzymes

What are the different parts of nucleotides/DNA?

nucleotides, ATP, nucleic acids

Monosaccharides

simplest form of carbs

Disaccharides

formed by two monosaccharides joined; nutritional source of monosaccharides

Polysaccharides

produce starch and glycogen

Triglycerides

body's most efficient form of stored energy

Glycerol

modified simple sugar used as solvent and sweetner

Fatty Acids

chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with an organic acid group at one end

phospholipids

build cellular membranes

steroids

include hormones and cholesterol

amino acids

building block of protein

enzymes

speeds up chemical reaction

nucleotides

building block of nucleic acids

ATP

stores and releases chemical energy

nucleic acids

includes DNA and RNA