bio 110 Notes

Biomolecules

Molecules essential for life processes, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Fred Griffith

Scientist who discovered bacterial transformation by observing the transfer of genetic material between different strains of bacteria.

Oswald Avery

Scientist who identified DNA as the heritable material by demonstrating its ability to transform bacteria.

Nucleic Acids

Biomolecules, such as DNA and RNA, responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.

Hershey and Chase

Scientists who confirmed that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material by using bacteriophages.

Watson and Crick DNA model

Proposed the double helix structure of DNA with specific base pairing rules.

Meselson and Stahl experiments

Demonstrated DNA replication occurs in a semi-conservative manner.

Tetrad

Group of four chromatids formed during meiosis, allowing for genetic recombination.

Operons

Clusters of genes transcribed together in bacteria, regulated by a single promoter.

ATP Synthase

Enzyme responsible for producing ATP by utilizing the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane.

Amino Acid Sequence

The specific order of amino acids in a protein.

Tertiary Structure

The three-dimensional shape of a protein resulting from the twisting and folding of its linear chain of amino acids.

Phosphates

Negatively charged molecules that, when added to hydroxyl (OH) groups, can alter the shape of proteins by repelling other charges.

Cellulose and Starch

Carbohydrates containing glucose; starch is easily digested by animals, while cellulose is found in cell walls and is less digestible.

Glycogen

A carbohydrate with 1-6 alpha bonds that can be broken down for energy.

Cellular Structure

The organization of organelles within a cell, each with specific functions.

Plasma Membrane

The cell's outer boundary, selectively permeable to regulate the passage of substances in and out of the cell.

Cell Wall

A rigid structure outside the plasma membrane that provides support and protection.

Ribosome

Cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis to generate energy.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies, while smooth ER is involved in lipid metabolism.

Golgi Apparatus

Organelle responsible for processing, packaging, and distributing cellular materials.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein filaments that maintains cell shape and aids in cell movement.

Enzyme Kinase

An enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other proteins.

Epinephrine

A hormone that triggers the liver to produce glucose in response to stress.

G Proteins

Proteins that bind to GTP and regulate various cellular processes.

cAMP

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a signaling molecule that activates protein kinase A.

Protein Kinase A (PKA)

Enzyme that modulates other proteins by adding phosphate groups.

Genome Duplication

Process where an organism's entire genetic material is copied, potentially leading to evolutionary changes.

Vascular tissue

Tissue in plants that conducts water and nutrients.

Xylem

Vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from roots to stems and leaves.

Phloem

Vascular tissue that transports sugars produced through photosynthesis to other parts of the plant.

Alternation of Generations

Life cycle in plants where there is a multicellular haploid phase (gametophyte) and a multicellular diploid phase (sporophyte).

Fungi

Eukaryotic organisms that can be single-celled or multicellular, with chitin cell walls and various modes of nutrition.

Mycelium

Weblike body of fungi composed of hyphae for absorption.

Glomeromycota

Fungi group that forms arbuscular mycorrhizae with plant roots.

Choanoflagellates

Sessile protists closely related to animals, multicellular, lack cell walls, and have movement capabilities.

Symmetry

Animals can be asymmetrical, radially symmetrical, or bilaterally symmetrical.

Coelom

Fluid-filled cavity surrounded by mesoderm in animals, distinguishing coelomates from acoelomates and pseudocoelomates.

Protostomes

Animals where the blastopore becomes the mouth, including Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa.

Deuterostomes

Animals where the blastopore becomes the anus, including Echinodermata and Chordates.

Chordates

Animals with a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and gill slits, including vertebrates like fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Hominins

Group of early hominids that originated in Africa, including Australopithecus and Homo species.

Mitochondrial human evolutionary tree

Phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial DNA sequences showing relationships among humans and close relatives.