Methods of Teaching Agriscience in the Secondary School

Elements of an interest approach

Attention-getter/focuser

clear instructions

transition

processing questions

Attention-Getter/ Focuser

should be on topic

should be purposeful

can be active

can contain an element of surprise

Clear instruction

step by step

should be student-friendly (chunked)

mind before body

should be so detailed someone else can deliver the lesson

parts of a direction set

Go word

list steps (no more than 5)

Ask for clarification (open-ended)

set a time limit

repeat the steps in short form

say the go word

Processing questions

help students make the connection on their own

3 levels- what?

so what?

what now?

what? questions

describing the experience or event; asks students to recall, observe, or summarize what took place

purpose: ensure students have a clear, shared understanding of the facts or sequence of events

So what? questions

prompt students to reflect on their experience and consider its significance. it moves beyond description to reflection, encouraging meaning-making

purpose: helps students connect the activity to broader concepts, personal insights, or learning goals

what now? questions

prompt students to apply what they’ve learned by thinking about future actions, changes, or applications of the experience

purpose: supports growth, learning transfer, and goal-setting

transition

should tell students to overall purpose of the day

should lead into objectives

TPO

end goal for lesson

• behavior

• condition

• criteria

behavior

verb/action

must be from bloom’s

(identify, describe, create)

condition

under which behavior is to be carried out

(given a provided scenario)

criteria

level of acceptable performance

(to be proficient level on provided rubric)

enabling objectives

goals that will help students achieve TPO

3-5 per lesson

start with verb/action (from Bloom’s)

should be specific

worded in terms of what student will do

1 behavior per objective

measurable

Selecting Lesson Order step 1

Identify Unit Objectives

• start with end in mind

• begin by clearly defining the learning objectives and outcomes for the unit.

• What should students be able to know, do, and understand by the end of the unit?

• These objectives will guide the sequence of lessons

Selecting Lesson Order step 2

assess prior knowledge

• Diagnostic Assessments: Use pre-assessments or discussions to gauge students' existing knowledge and skills. This will help you understand where to start and identify any gaps that need to be addressed early on.

• Scaffolding: Plan to build on what students already know, gradually introducing more complex concepts as their understanding deepens.

Selecting Lesson Order step 3

determine key concepts and skills

• Break Down the Unit: 

  • Identify the core concepts, skills, and topics that need to be covered. 

  • Group these into logical categories or themes that naturally flow from one to the next.

• Break Down the Unit: 

  • Identify the core concepts, skills, and topics that need to be covered. 

  • Group these into logical categories or themes that naturally flow from one to the next.

Selecting Lesson Order step 4

consider sequence for progression

• Logical Flow: 

  • Arrange lessons in a way that moves from simple to complex, concrete to abstract, or familiar to unfamiliar.

  • Consider the cognitive load and ensure that students can handle the complexity as it increases.

• Thematic Connections: 

  • If possible, connect lessons thematically so that students see the relationships between different concepts.

  • This can help reinforce learning and make the material more engaging.

Selecting Lesson Order step 5

account for differentiation

• Flexible Pacing:

  • Be prepared to adjust the order or timing of lessons based on student needs. 

  • Some students may require more time on certain topics, while others may benefit from enrichment activities that explore concepts in greater depth.

• Varied Instructional Methods: Use a variety of teaching strategies (e.g., direct instruction, collaborative learning, hands-on activities) to meet diverse learning styles within the sequence of lessons.

Selecting Lesson Order step 6

consider time restraints

• Pacing: 

  • Be realistic about the time available for each lesson and the entire unit. 

  • Ensure that the sequence allows for sufficient coverage of all necessary content without rushing or sacrificing depth.

Formative assessments

To monitor student learning and provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning.

Examples: Quizzes, classroom discussions, observations, peer reviews, drafts of essays, and in-class activities.

timing of formative assessments

Occur during the learning process, often multiple times throughout a unit or course.

feedback of formative assessments

Immediate, aimed at helping students identify their strengths and areas for improvement.

formative assessments Nature, Focus, Usage in Education

Low stakes, often not graded or minimally graded.

On the process of learning, understanding concepts, and skills development.

help in adjusting teaching methods and materials in real-time to better meet students' needs.

summative assessments

To evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional period by comparing it against a standard or benchmark.

Final exams, skill practicum, end-of-term projects, standardized tests, and end-of-chapter tests.

timing of summative assessments

 Usually occurs at the conclusion of a unit, course, or academic year.

feedback of summative assessments

Usually comes after the assessment is complete, often in the form of grades or scores.

summative assessments Nature, Focus, Usage in Education

High stakes, often heavily graded.

On the outcome of learning, assessing what students have learned over a period of time.

used to determine students’ overall performance and can inform decisions such as grades, placement, and curriculum effectiveness.

feedback frequency: assessments

Formative assessments provide continuous feedback, while summative assessments provide feedback at the end.

impact on learning: assessments

Formative assessments are more about shaping ongoing learning, while summative assessments are about evaluating what has been learned

grading assessments

Formative assessments may not always be graded, whereas summative assessments are usually graded and can affect final grades or progression

Effective teaching

• Rosenshine & Furst

  • 1970’s Meta-Analysis (Summary)

  • Correlations between CHARACTERISTICS of TEACHERS and STUDENT PERFORMANCE

  • Personal experience has reinforced these findings

clarity- effective teaching

• Highest correlation with student achievement scores

• Ability to explain concepts clearly

• Or to answer questions intelligently

how to develop clarity

• Start with organization and planning

  • Direct correlation between time spent on planning and effectiveness of lesson

  • Develop major topics/subtopics (Objectives!)

    • Use to develop detailed course syllabus

variability- effective teaching

• Variety in:

  • Teaching Method

  • Instructional Materials

  • Types of Teaching Devices

Most Common Teaching Method?

Variety more important than method

enthusiasm- effective teaching

• Vigor and power of instructor

  • Positively related to student performance

  • Alert better than apathetic; stimulating better than dull

• Measures of enthusiasm

  • Involvement

  • Excitement regarding subject matter

task oriented/business-like behavior- effective teaching

• Business-like means responsible, steady, systematic, poised

  • Take teaching seriously

• Task Oriented means:

  • Concerned about students attaining objectives

  • Encouraging class to work hard

task oriented

State course objectives

Proceed at rapid rate

-Don’t drag on and on

-Do not digress from theme of lecture

Provide sample exam questions

positive reinforcement- effective teaching

• Doesn’t just work on students

• Easy to do!

  • Positive written comments

  • Positive spoken comments

  • Use of student ideas

student opportunity to learn- effective teaching

• Ridiculously simple:

  • Were students taught what they need in order to answer questions on test?

  • Did material on test match what was taught in class?

  • Often does not!

student opportunity

• Correlations between student opportunity to learn and achievement are always:

  • Positive

  • Significant

  • Consistent

• Reason for writing objectives

  • Easy to check if objectives match test questions

humor- effective teaching

• Lowest relationship

  • Consistently positive

  • Believed to be a motivating factor

    • Develops interest

      • Shows professor is enjoying him/herself

      • Makes learning fun!

Objectives

What a student must achieve in order to accomplish what is to be learned, comprehended or mastered.

Every “great lesson” begins with a set of well-formed objectives.

Serve as instructional goals

Foundation for student expectations

Basis for the construction of tests and quizzes

components of objectives

The BEHAVIOR (expressed with an action verb)

The CONDITION under which the behavior is to be carried out

The CRITERIA of acceptable performance

tips for objectives

Do not use verbs such as “learn,” “understand,” “know,” or “study.” They are not measurable!

Relate your objective to practical, usable applications.

It is better to “over-plan” than to “under-plan.”

Don’t try to complete/achieve too many objectives. It is better to deal with only a few with thoroughness rather than many that are merely surface-skimming!

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Thinking (cognitive domain)

remember (not so hot)

understand

apply

analyze

evaluate

create (hot)

remembering

Provide Information

• emphasizes memorizing, recognizing, recalling

Action verbs

• define

• name

• list

• define

understanding

Embraces interpreting, saying in your own words

Action verbs

• describe

• translate

• give an example

• compare

applying

Involves applying information to produce some results

• Beginning of problem solving

Action verbs

• employ

• demonstrate

• use

• apply

• sketch

analyzing

Involves the subdividing of something to show how it is put together

• Breakdown and compare

Action verbs

• examine

• appraise

• differentiate

• categorize

evaluating

Involves making value decisions, resolving controversies or difference of opinions

• Why do you think?

Action verbs

• judge

• select

• assess

creating

Entails the creation of a unique, original product

• Verbal or physical form

Action verbs

• plan

• propose

• design

• develop

Developing a framework for planning and delivering instruction

1. establish set

2. Communicate Objectives

3. Provide Instruction

4. Check Comprehension

5. Model the Behavior (Skill)

6. Practice

7. Closure

establish set

Create a frame of reference for learning

Review previous work

Create a desire (interest) in learning

Relate to objectives of workshop/lesson

communicate objectives

Should flow from interest approach

More likely to learn if expectations are clear

“By the end of this lesson you will...”

State verbally and/or in writing

Describe activities of the workshop/lesson

Describe how objectives will be accomplished

provide instruction

Teach the workshop/lesson content by addressing the objectives

Select teaching methods and strategies to reach objectives

Select and develop handouts and visuals

check comprehension

Monitoring versus Evaluating

Monitoring is a continual process

Evaluation is more complex – formal assessment

model the behavior (skill)

Psychomotor skill development

Acquisition of cognitive skills

practice

Guide – Independent

Assess progress

Application of learning

closure

Summarize main points

Reinforce key information or procedures

Refer back to objectives

Link to the next topic or application of learning

instructional process and 4 step approach to teaching

1. prep

2. presentation

3. application

4. evaluation

preparation

• Establish set

• Communicate Objectives

presentation

• Provide Instruction

• Check Comprehension

• Model behaviors

application

practice

evaluation

closure

methods of group instruction

Lecture

Discussion

Demonstration/Simulations

Case Studies

Field Trips

Role Playing

Resource People

Games

lecture

One-way presentation of teaching by telling

Strengths

Cover material quickly

Address audience of diverse backgrounds and interest

Little equipment needed

Dynamic teacher can be very effective

Weaknesses

Little interaction with students

Teacher centered

Can be boring and uninteresting

suggestions for good lectures

Suggestions for good lectures:

Know your audience

Start with a meaningful problem

Be enthusiastic

Credibility of lecturer

Speak clearly and fluently

Vary the rate and intensity of the speech

Avoid distracting mannerisms

Use visuals to support other learning styles

lecturing

• Illustrate the major points

• One-sided vs. both sides of an issue

  • Both sides are best when:

    • intelligent audience

    • the audience initially disagrees with the lecturer

    • audience often comes in contact with people with other views

• Come to a conclusion

• Keep it short

  • High School students can engage in 10-20 minutes of passive learning

  • State changes can used to break up heavy content

Discussion

Promote critical thinking, active learning, and student engagement.

Encourage students to articulate their ideas, listen to others, and build upon different perspectives.

keys to discussion

Establish clear expectations: Set ground rules for respectful, active participation to ensure all students contribute constructively.

Prepare guiding questions: Have a set of thoughtful, open-ended questions to keep the discussion focused and meaningful.

Encourage active listening: Teach students to listen carefully to their peers and respond thoughtfully.

Provide structure and time limits: Ensure discussions don’t lose focus by setting a clear structure and time limit for each activity.

pros and cons of discussion

Active Learning

Improved Communication

Collaborative Learning

Deeper Understanding of Content

Encourage Multiple Perspectives

Student Empowerment

Time-consuming

Uneven participation

Off-topic conversation

Potential for conflict

Requires skilled facilitation

Inaccuracy or misconceptions

Grading can be difficult

class discussions

Follow basic principles of discussion

The teacher keeps student discussion on the subject.

There is a balance between teacher talk and student talk.

The teacher encourages student-student interaction as well as teacher-student interaction. (ex: Do you agree with John's answer? Why or why not? or Mary, how would you answer Joe's question?)

demonstration

The teacher, using actual tools, teaches by showing students the new information

Strengths

•Visual learning

•Excellent for small classes

•Ideal for teaching skills

•Can be modified by the teacher

Weaknesses

•Teacher centered

•All students must be in a position to learn

•Slow

•Requires a great deal of equipment and detail

Simulation

Replicates real-life scenarios in a controlled, risk-free environment.

Allows students to practice specific skills or decision-making processes.

Participants engage in situations that mimic actual classroom or professional environments, where they can experiment, apply theoretical knowledge, and experience consequences without real-world risks.

pros and cons of simulation

Strengths:

• Practical Application

• Safe Envirnoment for Mistakes

• Active Learning

• Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving

• Confidence Building 

• Immediate Feedback

Weaknesses:

• Resource intensive 

• Limited Realism

• Performance Pressure

• Time Constraints

• Need for Skilled Facilitation 

Case Studies

Involve the use of real-life or hypothetical situations (cases) that require students to analyze, discuss, and solve problems within the context of the case.

This method is particularly effective in helping students apply theoretical knowledge to practical, real-world scenarios, encouraging critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Key Characteristics:

1. Realistic Scenarios

2. Problem-Centered

3. Interactive Learning

4. Multi-Dimensional Learning (need to explore multiple factors)

5. Facilitator Guidance

pros and cons of case studies

Benefits

• Active learning

• Real-world application

• Critical thinking and problem-solving

• Collaboration and communication

• Multi-perspective analysis

• Decision-making skills

• Student empowerment

Challenges

• Time-consuming

• Potential for shallow analysis

• Varied student participation

• Overwhelming for some students

• Difficulty in Assessment

Field Trips

•Taking students into the “field” to observe and participate in real-world situations

•Provide variety and change of pace

•Offers enrichment through sensual stimulation

•Provide concrete frames of reference

Uses:

•Beginning of a problem area in order to create interest

•For gathering information to use in problem solving

•Concluding a problem area

Planning a field trip

•Establish the goals for the field trip

•Why use a field trip as the teaching technique

•Develop objectives to be achieved

•Select the appropriate site

•Secure administrative approval

•Specific arrangements with the host

executing a field trip

•Managing student behavior

• Make sure students notice crucial operations, skills, practices, facilities, equipment, duties of workers, etc.

•Make sure students express appreciation to the host

•Summarize the major points of learning

•Have students plan for application

Role Playing

•Involves having class participants play or portray a given role

•Teach concepts and skills related to human relations

•Development of leadership skills

•Teach basic sales abilities

•Good way to approximate real-life situations in a secure environment 

PLANNING A ROLE PLAY

•Select subject matter suited to this technique

•Decide on specific objectives to be accomplished

•Design the role to be played

•Select students for active participation

•Prepare students to play respective roles

•Analysis and summary

Resource People

•Using an expert individual to provide information

•Role of a resource person

•Serve as a consultant

•Address a specific problem

•Used to clarify

•Endorse a process or practice

Games

An interactive and engaging approach to learning, where students participate in structured games designed to reinforce concepts, encourage collaboration, and build problem-solving skills.

This method makes learning fun and enhances retention, especially for complex or abstract concepts.

Pros and Cons of Games

• Provide a change of pace for students and teacher

• Make all students participate

• Stimulate unmotivated students

• Develop team spirit and cooperation

• Inspires students to learn material

• Can make a "bad" day a successful day.

• Noisy

• Competition can get out of hand

• No new material can be presented

• Smart team wins

• Can get old

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A GROUP TECHNIQUE

•Nature of the subject matter

•Objectives to be achieved

•Nature of the learners

•Resource material available

•Amount of time available

•The teacher’s preference

Closing a Lesson

Condense lesson into a few basic points

Serves as a review

Reinforces the lesson

Draws lesson together into “memorable” package

Student feedback

Provides opportunity for questions

a closure should

provide feedback

set the stage for the next lesson

recap objectives

encourage reflection

check for comprehension

review

elements of a closure

1. closure activity

2. provide feedback

3. review objectives

4. set the stage for the next class

Closure Activity

• Purpose: Reinforce the main ideas from the lesson and give students a chance to actively recall and apply what they learned.

• Examples:

  • A quick “exit ticket” where students answer a key question.

  • A short pair-share summarizing the most important concept.

  • A one-sentence summary: “Today I learned ___.”

• Why it matters: Closure activities strengthen memory and give students a sense of completion instead of the lesson just “ending.”

Provide Feedback

• Purpose: Ensure students know whether they are on the right track and how to improve.

• Examples:

  • Highlighting correct responses and clarifying misconceptions.

  • Giving verbal praise for effort and accuracy.

  • Offering constructive suggestions for improvement before the next lesson.

• Why it matters: Timely feedback helps students connect their current performance to learning goals and fosters motivation.

Reviewing Objectives

• Purpose: Connect the day’s activities back to the stated learning objectives. This closes the loop between what was promised and what was delivered.

• Examples:

  • Restating: “Our objective was to explain the steps of mitosis. Who can summarize those steps for me?”

  • Check-for-understanding: Asking students to give examples that align with the objective.

• Why it matters: Reviewing objectives helps students see the relevance of the lesson and recognize their own progress toward mastery.

Setting the Stage for the Next Class

• Purpose: Provide continuity by previewing what comes next and building curiosity.

• Examples:

  • “Tomorrow we’ll apply today’s formulas to real-world problems.”

  • Giving a “teaser question” that leads into the next topic.

  • Assigning a short task or thought prompt to prepare for the following lesson.

• Why it matters: Forward-looking closures spark interest and help students see learning as a connected journey rather than isolated lessons.

Demonstration

• A demonstration is a process to display the procedure of a skill 

• This method is very effective. Students can understand the complex content very easily.

• Benefits all learners

  • Visual- watching the steps

  • Auditory- hearing the steps

  • Kinesthetic- practicing the steps  

steps to a demo

• Preparation & planning

• Introduction of the lesson

• Presentation of the lesson

• Demonstration of the skill

• Q&A and review

• Student practice time

• Evaluation of skill 

Step 1: Preparation and Planning

Determine the objectives of the demonstration

Prepare the lesson plan

Gather materials for demonstration

Practice your demo

Step 2: Introduce the lesson

Interest Approach

Relate new knowledge to previous knowledge

Provide context of how the skill will be useful

Step 3: Presentation of the lesson 

Provides the content before the demo

Must be well-organized

Define necessary terminology, introduce tools and provide background information

Step 4: Demonstration of the Skill

Have all materials prepared and ready for use

For each step, describe and perform the skill

Steps should be clear, simple and well organized

Make sure all students can see (present demo in groups if necessary)