AP Psychology: Topics 1.2 – 1.4 Study Guide

Comprehensive flashcards covering Topics 1.2 to 1.4 for AP Psychology, including the nervous and endocrine systems, neural firing and neurotransmitters, and brain anatomy and lateralization.

What structures compose the Central Nervous System (CNS), and what is its role?

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the body's central processing unit for receiving, interpreting, and sending information.

How does a reflex arc work during a physical reaction?

It produces a fast, automatic response to a stimulus via sensory neurons, interneurons in the spinal cord, and motor neurons, initially bypassing the brain to permit rapid physical reactions.

What is the difference between sensory (afferent) neurons and motor (efferent) neurons in the somatic nervous system?

Sensory (afferent) neurons carry incoming sensory signals from receptors to the CNS, whereas motor (efferent) neurons carry outgoing instructions from the CNS to muscles and glands.

How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems differ in function?

The sympathetic nervous system activates the "Fight-or-Flight-or-Freeze" response by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and inhibiting digestion. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the body ("Rest-and-Digest") to restore homeostasis by slowing heart rate, contracting pupils, and stimulating digestion.

How do hormones differ from neurotransmitters in terms of delivery and duration?

Hormones travel through the bloodstream and produce slower, longer-lasting effects, whereas neurotransmitters travel across synaptic gaps to produce faster, localized effects.

Why is the pituitary gland referred to as the "Master Gland," and what controls it?

It is regulated by the hypothalamus, releases growth hormone, and secretes hormonal signals that direct other endocrine glands to release their hormones.

Which hormones do the adrenal glands release during stress, and where are they located?

Located on top of the kidneys, the adrenal glands release adrenaline/epinephrine and cortisol to trigger arousal and emergency responses.

What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland, and what is its primary function?

The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

What is the function of the myelin sheath, and what clinical disorder is associated with its deterioration?

It is a fatty layer that insulates the axon and speeds up signal transmission; its deterioration leads to Multiple Sclerosis (MS), causing loss of muscle control and slowed signal transmission.

What ions and charge define a neuron's resting potential?

The neuron maintains a baseline resting potential of $\sim -70\,\text{mV}$ where the inside is negatively charged relative to the outside (polarized), characterized by a high concentration of $\text{Na}^+$ outside and $\text{K}^+$ inside.

What is the threshold of excitation required to trigger a neural impulse?

The threshold of excitation is approximately $-55\,\text{mV}$.

What occurs during depolarization in an action potential?

Sodium channels open, allowing $\text{Na}^+$ ions to rush into the cell, creating a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon.

What principle governs whether a neuron fires, and how does stimulus strength affect the impulse?

The All-or-None Principle states that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all; increasing stimulus strength above threshold does not alter speed or strength, only the frequency of firing.

What happens during a neuron's refractory period?

During this brief pause after firing, the neuron cannot fire again until the sodium-potassium pump restores the cell to its resting potential (repolarization).

What is the process of reuptake in synaptic communication?

The process by which excess neurotransmitters remaining in the synaptic gap are reabsorbed by the sending neuron's terminal buttons.

What functions are associated with Acetylcholine (ACh), and what conditions result from its imbalance or blockade?

ACh controls muscle action, learning, and memory. A deficit is linked to Alzheimer's disease, and blocking ACh causes paralysis.

What disorders are linked to an excess and a deficit of dopamine?

An excess of dopamine is linked to Schizophrenia, while a deficit causes the tremors and rigidity seen in Parkinson's disease.

Which psychological disorder is strongly linked to a deficit of serotonin?

A deficit of serotonin is strongly linked to Major Depressive Disorder.

What role does GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) play, and what symptoms arise from a deficit?

GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity; a deficit is linked to anxiety disorders, seizures, and insomnia.

What is the primary function of glutamate, and what results from an excess?

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory and Long-Term Potentiation (LTP); an excess overstimulates the brain, causing migraines or seizures.

What effect do opiates have on the body's natural endorphin production?

Opiate overuse suppresses the brain's natural endorphin production, causing dependence and anhedonia.

How do agonists, antagonists, and reuptake inhibitors differ in psychopharmacology?

Agonists mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effect (e.g., morphine); antagonists block or inhibit action (e.g., Curare); and reuptake inhibitors prevent neurotransmitter reabsorption, leaving more in the synapse (e.g., SSRIs like Prozac).

What vital bodily functions are controlled by the medulla (medulla oblongata)?

The medulla controls autonomic life functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

What functions are carried out by the pons?

The pons coordinates movement, sleep regulation, and facial expressions, and bridges the brainstem to the cerebellum.

What is the primary function of the Reticular Formation / Reticular Activating System (RAS)?

It regulates arousal, wakefulness, and alertness, and filters incoming sensory signals.

What deficits occur if a patient experiences damage to the cerebellum?

Damage causes a loss of physical coordination, balance issues, and difficulty executing smooth voluntary movements and procedural memory tasks.

Which sensory modality bypasses the thalamus?

Smell (olfaction) bypasses the thalamus.

How do the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) regulate eating?

The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) serves as the "ON" switch that triggers hunger, while the Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) acts as the "OFF" switch that signals satiety/fullness.

What type of memory does the hippocampus consolidate, and what condition results from its damage?

It processes and consolidates new explicit (declarative) memories for long-term storage; damage results in anterograde amnesia (as seen in Clive Wearing).

What are the primary functions of the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens?

The amygdala processes emotions, especially fear, aggression, and threat detection; the nucleus accumbens is central to the reward pathway, pleasure, reinforcement learning, and addiction.

What primary functions are associated with the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes?

The Frontal Lobe handles executive functions and contains the Motor Cortex; the Parietal Lobe processes tactile input via the Somatosensory Cortex; the Occipital Lobe houses the Primary Visual Cortex; and the Temporal Lobe houses the Primary Auditory Cortex and facial recognition areas.

How do Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia differ?

Broca's aphasia (left frontal lobe damage) impairs speech production while comprehension remains mostly intact; Wernicke's aphasia (left temporal lobe damage) results in fluent but meaningless speech ("word salad") and severely impaired language comprehension.

In Sperry and Gazzaniga's split-brain experiments, how does a patient respond when a key is flashed in their left visual field?

The visual signal travels to the right hemisphere; because language is centered in the left hemisphere, the patient cannot name the key verbally, but they can identify and pick it up with their left hand.