FRHD test 1

human development

the pattern of change and movement that begins at conception and continues through lifespan

what processes must you understand to understand human development

biological, cognitive, socioemotional

human development is…

multidimensional

plastic

contextual

3 types of influences on development

normative age graded - similarities by particular age group

normative history-graded - similarities of particular generation

non normative life events - unusual occurrences that have major impact on one’s life

biological processes

change in one’s physical nature

cognitive processes

changes in one’s thinking, intelligence, and language

socioemotional processes

changes in one’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality

periods of development

prenatal

infancy

childhood

adolescence

early adulthood

middle/late adulthood

four types of age

chronological - reflects birth age

biological - biological health

psychological - how old someone behaves based on emotional maturity

social - person’s status against cultural norms and expected life stage milestones

parental

conception to birth

embryo to fetus

infancy

birth to 12…24 months

dependent on adults

beginning of symbolic thought, language

childhood

2 to 10/12 years

learning to become more selff sufficient

learn and master reading, writing, arithmetics

adolescence

10/12 to 18/22 years

puberty

gains independence

able to think more logically

early adulthood

early 20s to 45 years

developing personal and economical independence

selecting mate, learning to live with that person intimately, building family

if not mate, lonely

late adulthood

45 years to death

assisting next generation in being competent

adapting to decrease strength and health

central ideas in developmental science

nature and nurture

continuity and discontinuity

stability and change

stability and change

the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist and change over time

nature and nurture

biological vs environmental factors

continuity and discontinuity

degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)

scientific method

1. conceptualize a process or problem

2. collect research information

3. analyze data

4. draw conclusions

psychoanalytic theory

development of unconscious processes that are heavily influenced by emotion

freud’s and erikson’s

freund’s theory

children’s focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shift from the mouth to the anus to the genitals

stages of Freud’s theory

oral —> anal —> phallic —> latency —> genital

personality according to Freud

basic personality is shaped by first 5 years

adult personality determined by way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and demands of reality

oral stage

infant’s pleasure centres on mouth

anal stage

pleasure shifts to anus

birth to 1.5 years

phallic

pleasure focused on genitals

1.5 years to 3 years

latency

child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills

6 years to puberty

genital stage

sexual reawakening, source comes outside of family

puberty onward

cons of Frend’s theory

overemphasis on sexual instincts

conscious thought plays greater role than Freud thought

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

development is in psychosocial stages

crisis is turning point marked by vulnerability an enhanced potential

Erikson’s stages 8

trust vs mistrust - infancy

autonomy vs shame and doubt- infancy

initiative vs guilt - early childhood

industry vs inferiority - middle to late childhood

identity vs identity confusion - adolescent

intimacy vs isolation - early adulthood

generatively vs stagnation - middle adulthood

integrity vs despair - late adulthood

cognitive theories

development of complex thinking skills with emphasis on conscious thought

Piaget’s cognitive development theory

children go through four distinct cognitive stages

stages of Piaget

sensorimotor (birth to 2) - object permanence

pre-operational (2 to 7) - egocentrism

concrete (7 to 11) - conservation

formal (11 and older)

Vygotsy’s sociocultural cognitive theory

children learn by observing and scaffolding from a more knowledgable other

guided by culture and social interaction

information processing theory

individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information

learning good strategies for processing information is key to development

cognitive theories

Piaget, vygotsky, information processing

behavioural and social cognitive theories

behaviours are learned through interactions with surroundings

emphasizes continuity

skinner’s operant conditioning theory and bandora’s social cognitive theory

Skinner’s operant conditioning theory

key aspect of development is behaviour

probability of replication of a behaviour depends on its consequence (positive reinforcement)

operant conditioning

consequence of behaviour changes probability of it being resproduced

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

children learn through observation

attention, retention, motivation, potential

reciprocal determinism

reciprocal determinism

behaviour is influenced by behaviour, environment , personal and cognitive factors

ethological theories

behaviour is strongly influenced by biology

ethology

study of behaviour of animals in their natural habitat

imprinting

rapid, early-life social, emotional, or genetic formatting that shapes lifelong behaviour

must take place at critical period

critical period

period where specific experience must occur or else it won’t

sensitive period

where attachment should occur in order to promote optimal developmet

Bowlby’s ethological theory

attachment to caregiver over first year of life is very important

secure/positive attachment = positive development

insecure/negative = development won’t be optimal

Lorenz grey gal geese study

half hatched with mother duck, half hatched in incubater

first group followed mother, second follower Lorenz

ducklings followed first moving object seen

bioecological theory

emphasizes environmental factors

Brofenbrenner

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory

development Is influenced by several environmental systems

Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems

microsystem

mesosytem

ecosystems

macrosystem

chronosystem

microsystems

daily, face to face interactions

ex. family, peers, school

mesosystems

relationship between person’s microsystems

ex. how child’s parents interact with their teachers

exosystem

external social setting that do not involve individual directly

ex. parent’s work

macrosystem

cultural values, laws, economic systems

chronosystem

dimension of time that adds historical and lifespan perspective

ex. sociohistorical events, life transitions

contemporary theories 4 ex

more modern approach to development

postive psychology, neuroscience/neuroplasticity, dynamic systems, evolutionary psychology

positive psychology

focuses on conditions that foster components of happiness

emotional intelligence and positive psych are associated with better academic performance

happiness is the purpose of life

neuroscience and neurplasticity

the study of the brain, nervous system, and spinal column and how it adapts to change (disease and injury)

dynamic systems

relies on complex, dynamic interactions with emergent properties to predict development

uses theories of math, physics, biology

development is probabilistic and emerges out of complex interactions between developing organism and its environment

evolutionary psychology

function of physical characteristics and behaviours are to increasing survival and reproduction

natural selection

methods of collecting data 5

observation

survey

standardized tests

case study

physiological measures

types of observation

laboratory (controlled)

naturalistic (uncontrolled, natural)

survey

obtaining information by asking questions

quick to get information

standardized test

uniform procesdure for administration and scoring

case study

in depth look at individual

physiological measures

measuring physical factors in development

ex. neuroimaging, heart rate, cortisol

research desgins 5

descriptive research

correlation research

experimental research

cross sectional

longitudinal

descriptive research

aimed to observe and record behaviour

correlational research

aims to describe strength of relationship between two or more events

correlation coefficient (-1 to +1)

experimental research

aims to determine cause and effect

cause is manipulated

IV, DV, experimental and control groups

cross sectional approacj

simultaneously compared individuals of different ages

longitudinal approach

same individuals are studied over period of time

cohort effect

effect on dependent measures due to person’s time of birth, era, or generation

how to ensure ethical research

must pass research ethics committee before it can begin

genes in development

foundation of development

key role in evolution

dominant and recessive genes

dominant override recessive

sex-linked genes

mutated gene carried on X chromosome is called X-linked

if on Y chromosome it is Y linked (can only happen to males)

polygenic inheritance

traits often determined by interaction of many genes

ex. height

chromosomes

holds DNA

humans have 23 pairs

chromosome variation examples 5

Down syndrome (extra)

Klinefelter (XXY)

fragile X syndrome

Turner syndrome (XO)

XYY syndrome

down syndrome

extra chromosome 21

probability increases with maternal age

gene linked variation examples 8

cystic fibrosis

diabetes

haemophilia

Huntington disease

phenylketonuria

sickle cell anemia

spina bifida

tay-sacks disease

behavioural genetics

field that seeks to discover influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in development

twin studies

researchers examine behavioural similarities between identical and fraternal twins

to determine influence of genotype and environment

adoption study

researchers examine whether the behaviour and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like adoptive or biological

early growth and development study

large scale study exploring gene and environmental interplay in development

natural selection

the strongest, fastest, most adaptable genes (individuals) are more likely to live and reproduce

Swiss Army knife theory

human mind is like a number of independent domains and tools

three ways genotype and environment are correlated

passive genotype-environment correlations - biological parents provide rearing environment for child

evocative genotype-environment correlations - child’s characteristics elicit certain environments

active (niche picking) genotype-environment correlations - child seeks environment they find compatible and stimulating

niche picking

finding setting suited to one’s ability

epigenetic

study of how environment influences gene expression

epigenetic view of development

development is a result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment

can explain cohort effects

heredity-environment vs epigenetic view

HE: heredity —> environment

EPI: heredity <—> environment

prenatal development

when two parental cells merge to create a new individual

conception

occurs when sperm fertilizes ovum

how long does prenatal development last

266 days

three periods of pregnancy

germinal

embryonic

fetal