Chapter 7- elem psych

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Information processing model

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Working memory

• conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory
  integrates previous experiences to make smart decisions

Three stage model of memory

Three storage levels in memory: sensory, short term, long term

Two aspects of memory storage

Duration + capacity

Sensory memory

Storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds of less

Iconic memory (sensory)

Fast-decaying store of visual information

Echoic memory

Fast-decaying store of auditory information (2-10 sec)

Short Term memory (STM)

Storage that holds non-sensory information for more than a few seconds but <= 30 sec-1 min; can hold about seven items (+2)

Rehearsal (STM)

Process of keeping information in STM by mentally repeating it

Chunking (STM)

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters that are more easily held in STM

Working memory (STM)

Active maintenance of information in STM

Long-term memory

Storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years; no known capacity

Working memory capacity

Working memory capacity varies depending on age and other factors.

• Young adults > children and older adults

• Task-switching reduces working memory

Effortful Processing Strategies

Chunking

Mnemonics

Memory aids

Spacing effect

Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention

Distributed practice

Better long-term recall

Massed Practice

Cramming—speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

Testing effect (repeated self-testing)

Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect + involves enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Two memory systems

Automatic + Effortful

Automatic Memory Processing

Implicit memories → Processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia → Space, time, frequency, motor and cognitive skills, and CLASSICAL CONDITIOING

Effortful Memory Processing

Explicit memories → Processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes → SEMATIC MEMORY and episodic memory

Implicit memory

• Nondeclarative memory

• Retention of learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness

• Formed through automatic

processing

Explicit memory

Declarative memory

• Retention of facts and personal events that can be consciously

retrieved

• Encoded through conscious,

effortful processing

Semantic memory (Explicit)

Facts and general knowledge

Episodic memory (Explicit)

Personally experienced events

Hippocampus (Explicit)

Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the hippocampus. Frontal lobe is also involved

Cerebellum (Implicit)

Memories created by classical conditioning → Implicit memory formation

Basal ganglia (Implicit)

memories for physical/motor skills

Amygdala, emotions, and memory

• excitement or stress triggers stress hormones production

• - amygdala boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas

flashbulb memories

clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

Memory consolidation

• Sleep supports memory consolidation

• the hippocampus and the brain cortex display rhythmic patterns of activity during sleep

• mice and learning maze

Synaptic Changes: Long term potentiation

A mechanism that creates enduring synaptic connections, which results in increased transmission between neurons

• • Neural basis for learning and memory

  • As slugs learn, more serotonin is released in

  certain neurons

  • The number of synapses increases with

  experience and learning

Measuring Retention: Recall

Memory demonstrated by retrieving information

Measuring Retention: Recognition

Memory demonstrated by identifying items

Measuring Retention: Relearning

Memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material again

Retrieval Cues

serve as anchor points for pathways that can be followed to access a

memory

Priming

Activation, often unconsciously, of associations in the mind

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that retrieval is best when the present context or feeling recreates the

context or feeling when encoded

Context-dependent memory

you remember things better when you’re in the same place or situation where you first learned them

State-dependent memory

you remember something better if you’re in the same internal state you were in when you first learned it

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to remember things that match your current mood.

Serial Position effect

Serial position curve, recency effect, primacy effect

Reasons for forgetting

Encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure (interference and motivated forgetting)

Encoding failure

Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline and failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure.

Amnesia

The loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma

Two types of Amnesia

Anterograde and retrograde amnesia

Anterograde amnesia

can’t create new long-term memories after damage

Retrograde amnesia

Can’t remember anything prior to damage

Transience (storage decay)

Forgetting curve

Retrieval Failure

Memory is out of reach because the information to access it is insufficient and older adults frequently experience tip-of-the tongue forgetting

Two types of interference

Proactive and Retroactive

Proactive interference

Forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

Backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Reconsolidation

Process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

Improving memory

Rehearse repeatedly, make material meaningful, activate retrieval cues, minimize proactive and retroactive interference, use mnemonic devices, sleep more, test yourself, think actively as you read

Rehease repeatedly

spacing effect and testing effect

Make material meaningful

Build a network of retrieval cues-associations (concept map)

Activate retrieval cues

Make use of context and state-dependent memory