AP Psych- Neuroscience- not done!!

Biopsychosocial perspective

Study of links between biological and psychological processed

Genetic predisposition

Increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code

Neuroanatomy

Study of the structure and organization of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

Nervous system

Body’s information system of interconnected neuron cells

Glial cell

Type of neuron that acts as a support system for other neurons

Resting potential

Electrical change that exists between the inside and outside of a neuron that has an overall slightly negative charge. It is the recharge when not actively sending a message.

Synapses

Space between the end of a nerve cell and another cell

Neurotransmitter

Nerve impulses are usually carried to the neighboring cell by these chemicals, which are released by the nerve cell and are taken up by another cell on the other side of the synapse.

Cell body (soma)

Life support center of a neuron

Dendrites

Receives messages from other neurons. Messages travel towards the cell body

Axon

A long, single extension of a neuron that send messages to other neurons throughout the body

Myelin sheath

Layer of fatty tissue that insulates and speeds up messages through neurons

Nodes of ranvier

Small spaced gaps in the myelin sheath that insulates the axon of a nerve cell. These breaks are critical for the efficient and rapid transmission of electrical nerve impulses

Mirror neurons

Class of neurons that modulate their activity both when an individual executes a specific motor act and when they observe the same or similar act performed by another individual

Excitatory signals

From neuron to neuron is like pushing an accelerator. Likely to have action potential

Inhibitory signals

From neuron to neuron is like pushing a brake. Blocks neuron from firing signal

All-or-none responses

Involves a stimulus is strong enough to trigger an action potential or a muscle contraction, it will cause a complete and full response. Not strong enough to meet the minimum threshold, then no response will occur at all.

Interneurons

Interconnected clusters of neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. SENDS MESSAGES FROM BRAIN TO SPINAL CORD

Schwarn cell

Cells of the peripheral nervous system that are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath that protects the synapses of the nerves

Efferent

conducting cells that carry information from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to muscles and organs throughout the body

Afferent

carry impulses from receptors in muscles, organs, and glands to the central nervous system

Sodium ions

Positively charged particles that are more concentrated outside the neuron that enter the cell during an action potential, OPEN

Potassium ions

Plays a critical role in neuronal function, influencing electrical signals, nerve impulse transmission, and maintaining the brain’s resting membrane potential, FLOW

Threshold

Minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse in a neuron. A certain level is reached for a neuron to fire and send an electrochemical message down its axon

Action potential or spikes

Brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Occurs when a change inside a neuron becomes more positive than the charge outside

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Refractory period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

Hyperpolarization

Inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold. Change in a cell’s membrane potential which makes the inside more negative.

Depolarization

A change in the difference between the electric charge on the inside and outside of the cell membrane and is when the cell becomes positively charged or less negative. Releases ions.

Repolarization

Process where a cell’s electrical charge returns to its negative resting state after being depolarization by a postive-moving signal

Neuromodulator

Chemical substance released by neurons that influences the activity of target cells, including other neurons, by altering their responsiveness to neurotransmitters or by changing the neuron’s own intrinsic properties

Reuptake

Refers to the process in the brain of neurons to retrieve chemicals that were not received by the next neuron, NEUROTRANSMITTER REABSORBED & CLEARS OUT

Teminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters. They are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons. Contains synaptic vesicle that house neurotransmitters.

ACH

Neurotransmitter that supports cognitive functions in the central nervous system. When released from neurons, it triggers muscles, it triggers muscles contractions. Low levels can lead to Alzheimer’s disease.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that plays a role in emotions regulation, digestion, sexual function, and sleep. Low levels can cause depression. MOOD, HUNGER, SLEEP

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that inhibits certain brain signals and decreases activity in the sympathetic nervous system. An undersupply linked to tremors and insomnia

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that contributes to feeling of satisfaction and pleasure. Too much of this chemical can lead to the development of schizophrenia

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter that stimulates cells into action. An oversupply can cause migrations and seizures

Endorphins

Released by the brain’s pituitary gland and hypothalamus in response to pain or stress, and can also be released during pleasurable activities. They act as inhibitory neurotransmitters, blocking pain signals and creating a sense of well-being. FEEL GOOD, GIVES ENERGY

Substance P

Key mediator of pain transmission in the central nervous system. It’s released by sensory neurons in damaged tissue. Found in the brain, spinal cord, basal ganglia, nucleus accentuates, and cerebral cortex. (PAIN)

Norepinephrine

Controls a person’s alertness and arousal. KEEPS YOU AWAKE

Cell membranes

Controls the passage of ions and neurotransmitters into and out of the cell. Barrier for nerve cells and maintains electrical charge between inside and outside of cell

Myansthenia Gravis

Autoimmune disorder that causes muscle weakness by attacking the body’s own nicotine acetylcholine receptors. This attack interrupts communication between between nerves and muscles at the neuromuscular junction, which is the point where nerve signals trigger muscle contractions

Lock and key method

How neurotransmitters, like a key, bind to specific receptor sites on a neuron, the lock, to transmit a signal in the brain. It can also describe how specific substances bind to receptors in the context of addictions or how to effectively tailor a message to another person’s unique perspective.

Agonists

Drugs or substances that bind to a neuron’s receptor sites and mimics or enhances the effect of a natural occurring neurotransmitter

Antagonists

Blocks the action of neurotransmitters, preventing them from binding to receptors and exerting their effects

Nervous system

Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system. Delivers messages like email.

Reflex arcs

Neurological pathway that governs a reflex action, an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus

Peripheral nervous system

The sensory and mother neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. MOVEMENT

Autonomic nervous system

Control system of the body that regulates breathing, heart rate and digestion

Sympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and mobilizes its energy in stressful situation. FIGHT OR FLIGHT

Glymphatic system

System in the central nervous system of vertebrates that removes waste.

The endocrine system

Essential to communication. This system utilizes glands located throughout the body, which secrete hormones that regulate a variety of things such as metabolism, digestion, blood pressure and growth. Produces and releases hormones into bloodstream

Hormones

Chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the bloodstream

Epinephrine

ADRENALINE, increases heart rate, blood pressure, and feelings of excitement during emergency situations

Pituitary glands

Secretes hormones during pair-bonding interactions; therefore, the pituitary gland also plays an important role in the development of group cohesion and social trust. It is also known to give secretions that will stimulate the release of hormones in other endocrine glands. GROWTH

Oxytocin

Produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It plays a role in pair bonding and social behavior such as trust.

Adrenal glands

Type of endocrine glands that are triangle-shaped and located on top of kidneys. The outer part is known as the cortex and releases hormones including testosterone and cortisol.

Adrenaline

Activated during the fight-or- flight response in stressful situations

Leptin

Involved in weight regulation. Suppresses hunger.

Ghrelin

Motivates eating by increasing hunger

Melatonin

Triggers sleep and wakefulness responses in the brain

Lesion or ablation

Experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal behaviors after such destruction

Prefrontal cortex

The brain’s central executive and is believed to be important in predicting consequences, maintaining emotional control, and engaging in higher-level cognitive processes

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms body to conserve and maintain energy

CAT scan

Identifies neurological problems. They can detects issues that may influence a person’s psychological functioning, such as tumors, bleeding, stroke damage, or brain swelling after an injury.

MRI

Shows structure not function of the brain. Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among types of brain tissue.

PET scan

Imaging test that uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to look for disease in the body. Can find damage in brain and mental illness.

EEG

Detects brain wave functions by examining what type of waves the brain produces during stages of consciousness. Mainly used in sleep research to identify the different stages of sleep and dreaming.

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain responsible for higher level functions such as thought, language and emotions. It contains two hemispheres that control different aspects of behavior and cognition.

Cerebral cortex

Where upper motor neurons originate and travel down to the brain stem or spinal cord. Lower motor neurons begin in the spinal cord and go on to muscles and glands throughout the body. 85% of the brain, protects lobes, and is located at the outer layer of the skull.

Brain stem

Connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord, is made up of three parts in descending order: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. This structure regulates many vital, involuntary functions, survival functions, and relays signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

Pons

Structure in the brain stem that acts as a bridge, relaying signals between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. Its main function is helping to regulate the sleep cycle and control facial expressions, and eye movement. FACIAL RECOGNITION AND SLEEP

Medulla oblongata

Controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular formation

Nerve network in the brain stem that plays an important role in controlling arousal, sleep cycles, and consciousness.

Spinal cord

Extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Carries messages to and from the brain

Cerebellum

Helps coordinate voluntary movements, balance and thinking processes

Thalamus

Locates on top of the brain stem and is the brain’s sensory switchboard. Receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to ares around the forebrain

Hypothalamus

Controls eating, drinking, temperature regulation, and sexual drive. Eating and drinking!

Amygdala

Almond-shaped part of the brain that is a center for emotional responses such as fear, anger, and aggression.

Hippocampus

Where memories are processed in the brain and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage. Memories must pass through this area first in order to be encoded. (Short vs long term memory)

Pineal gland

Located deep in the mid-line of the brain. Responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle

Frontal lobe

Largest lobe of the brain. Involved with speech, problem solving, reasoning, and personality characteristics

Parietal lobe

Helps a person identify objects and responds to touch, heat, cold, pressure, and pain

Occipital lobe

Vision and color

Temporal lobe

Involved with hearing, short-term memory, and understanding language.

Moter cortex

Thin vertical strip at the back of the frontal lobe. Part of the cerebral cortex that sends signals to muscles. The top of the motor cortex controls our feet and toes of the body.

Somatosensory cortex

An area of the brain, located in the parietal lobe, that receives all sensory input from the body. Neurons that sense feelings in our skin, pain, visual, or auditory stimuli, all send their information to this.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage.

Broca’s area

Area in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is critical for the production of spoken language.

Wernicke

Damage upon a specific area of the temporal lobe that disrupts the ability to comprehend or produce spoken or written language

Fusiform gyrus

Part of the brain where neurons in the temporal lobe are hardwired to recognize faces

Plasticity

Brain’s ability to change during childhood by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways. The brain compensates by putting other parts to work.

Left hemisphere

Th hemisphere that processes reading, writing, speaking, math, and comprehension skills

Right hemisphere

The hemisphere that controls spatial abilities, face recognition, visual imaginary, and music

Contralateral hemisphere

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain allowing for communication between the left and right side of the body. Left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.