Geography Midterm 2

LULC | What is the Great Acceleration?

A period of rapid increases in human activities and their environmental impacts, especially since the mid-20th century.

LULC | What are the major topics connected to land-use change?

Habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, urbanization, agriculture, pollution, and changes to oceans and fisheries.

LULC | What is habitat?

The environmental conditions required to support a given species.

LULC | Why can using the word habitat for all land cover be misleading?

Not every land-cover type provides the resources a particular species needs. Habitat should be defined in relation to a species.

LULC | Why are 'suitable habitat' and 'unsuitable habitat' considered redundant or contradictory in the lecture?

Habitat already means the conditions where an organism lives; calling it suitable is redundant, while calling it unsuitable is contradictory.

LULC | Why should habitat be discussed in the context of a species?

Without identifying the species, the term is vague, misleading, and ambiguous.

LULC | What is landscape ecology?

A subfield of ecology that examines patterns and interactions among communities across relatively large areas.

LULC | What does landscape ecology emphasize?

The spatial arrangement of land uses.

LULC | What is a patch in landscape ecology?

An area with relatively homogeneous environmental conditions surrounded by less similar land-cover types; it may represent habitat for a focal species.

LULC | What is the matrix?

All areas of non-focal land-cover types surrounding or separating the focal patches.

LULC | What is a corridor?

A linear connection between patches.

LULC | Why are patch, matrix, and corridor definitions species- or problem-dependent?

The focal land-cover type depends on the species or ecological question being studied.

LULC | What landscape metrics can be used to quantify landscape composition?

Habitat amount, number of patches, distance to the nearest patch, patch isolation, and amount of edge.

LULC | What is habitat loss?

A reduction in the total area of habitat, independent of its spatial configuration.

LULC | What is habitat fragmentation?

The breaking apart or separation of habitat into multiple smaller patches.

LULC | Why is it difficult to distinguish habitat loss from fragmentation?

They often occur together, making their separate effects difficult to disentangle.

LULC | What is the key difference between habitat loss and fragmentation?

Habitat loss reduces total habitat area; fragmentation changes how the remaining habitat is spatially arranged.

LULC | How can fragmentation change a landscape?

It can create more, smaller patches, increase isolation and edge, and reduce interior habitat.

LULC | What are examples of landscape ecology applications in cities?

Parks can function as patches, while greenways can function as corridors.

LULC | What can deforestation do to habitat for interior species?

It can reduce interior habitat while creating more patches and more edge.

LULC | What is the SLOSS debate?

The conservation debate over whether one large reserve or several small reserves are better.

LULC | What are potential advantages of one single large reserve?

Fewer patches, less edge, and more interior habitat.

LULC | What are potential advantages of several small reserves?

They may be more feasible to establish and can create more separate patches.

LULC | What are potential disadvantages of several small reserves?

More edge and less interior habitat.

LULC | What does the Habitat Amount Hypothesis (HAH) propose?

The amount of habitat matters, while its configuration or spatial arrangement does not.

LULC | Does fragmentation always reduce biodiversity?

No. Some species respond positively to fragmentation, and edge-associated species or increased heterogeneity may benefit.

LULC | What is an edge-associated species?

A species that uses or benefits from habitat near the boundary between different land-cover types.

LULC | What is an ecological edge?

The boundary area between adjacent habitat or land-cover types.

LULC | How can roads affect wildlife?

Roads can divide habitat and create barriers to wildlife movement; the lecture highlights wildlife crossings or ecopassages as a response.

LULC | What is an ecopassage?

A structure or route that helps wildlife cross roads more safely.

LULC | What resources do lawns use annually, according to the lecture?

About 3 trillion gallons of water, 200 million gallons of gas, and 70 million pounds of pesticides.

LULC | Why are lawns described as biological deserts?

They provide limited habitat and contribute to habitat loss; they can also support invasive species.

LULC | What is land sparing?

An approach that prioritizes protecting or setting aside land for nature while concentrating human production elsewhere.

LULC | What is land sharing?

An approach that integrates human land use with less-intensive, more biodiverse communities or landscapes.

LULC | What is commensalism?

An association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other experiences neither benefit nor harm.

LULC | What are some benefits of urban ecosystems?

Mental-health benefits, engagement with nature, and mitigation of the urban heat-island effect.

LULC | What is the urban heat-island effect?

The phenomenon in which urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas; urban ecosystems can help mitigate it.

LULC | What planning ideas are listed for Chapel Hill development?

A rural buffer, connected greenways, a complete community, housing diversity, multimodal transit, abolishing parking minimums, and progressive-rate parking fees.

LULC | What is densification?

Increasing the concentration of development or people within an existing urban area.

LULC | How can densification lower municipal costs?

Utilities and waste-management services can serve more people efficiently in a more compact area.

LULC | How can densification affect tax revenue and amenities?

It can increase tax revenue, which can help support amenities such as parks.

LULC | How can densification support sustainability and equity?

It can improve transit efficiency, decrease emissions, increase housing diversity, support multimodal transit, and improve access to greenspace.

Agriculture | What is Malthusianism?

The theory that population grows exponentially while food production grows linearly, potentially causing a population crisis when food cannot keep up.

Agriculture | Who proposed the original Malthusian theory and when?

Thomas Malthus, in 1798.

Agriculture | What is a Malthusian catastrophe?

A crisis in which population growth outpaces food production, leading to outcomes such as famine.

Agriculture | Why has classical Malthusianism been largely discredited?

Agricultural technological innovation and the demographic transition challenged its predictions.

Agriculture | What central question guides the agriculture lecture?

How can food production increase to feed the global population while minimizing environmental effects?

Agriculture | What major environmental effects of agriculture are listed?

Nutrient pollution, animal-waste pollution, water use, and land-use change affecting biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Agriculture | Why are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium important to plants?

Nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll; phosphorus supports photosynthesis, respiration, and cell walls; potassium helps move water and nutrients.

Agriculture | What is biological nitrogen fixation?

A natural process in which certain organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically usable forms.

Agriculture | Which plant family is highlighted for biological fixation?

Fabaceae, which includes legumes such as peas and beans.

Agriculture | What are examples of Fabaceae trees mentioned in the lecture?

Acacia, redbud, mesquite, and mimosa.

Agriculture | What is the Haber process?

A process developed around 1910 for producing synthetic ammonia, enabling large-scale synthetic nitrogen fertilizer production.

Agriculture | What developments characterize the late-20th-century agricultural revolution in the lecture?

Synthetic fertilizer, automation, glyphosate (1974), and genetically modified organisms (1996).

Agriculture | How do synthetic fertilizers affect nutrient cycles?

They add human-generated flows of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, to soils and ecosystems.

Agriculture | How can added agricultural nitrogen reach aquatic ecosystems?

It can move from soil into surface waters such as rivers, lakes, and estuaries.

Agriculture | What happens when excess nutrients enter a nutrient-limited aquatic system?

Algal growth can increase.

Agriculture | What is eutrophication?

Increased algal growth resulting from excess nutrients.

Agriculture | What happens when large amounts of algae die and decompose?

Decomposition consumes oxygen in the water.

Agriculture | What is hypoxia?

Oxygen depletion in water.

Agriculture | How can eutrophication create aquatic dead zones?

Excess nutrients stimulate algal growth; algae die and decompose, consuming oxygen; oxygen depletion can kill fish and create dead zones.

Agriculture | What is a dead zone?

An aquatic area with very low oxygen, often associated with nutrient pollution and decomposition of excess algae.

Agriculture | What is animal-waste pollution?

Pollution caused by animal waste entering the environment, including waterways, and adding nutrients or pathogens.

Agriculture | Which sector consumes the most water globally, according to the lecture?

Food production

Agriculture | What share of global water withdrawals is used for irrigation?

About 70%.

Agriculture | What share of cropped land uses freshwater from rain versus irrigation?

About 84% uses rainwater and 16% uses irrigation.

Agriculture | Why is agricultural water use difficult to reduce?

Plants need water to grow, and water is lost through evaporation from soil; improved technologies can reduce evaporative losses.

Agriculture | What crops and products are associated with the Imperial Valley example?

Livestock and cattle feed, wheat, hay, alfalfa, and winter vegetables such as lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, and carrots.

Agriculture | What crops are associated with the South Florida example?

Winter vegetables such as lettuce and green beans, as well as rice, corn, and sugar.

Agriculture | How can agricultural water allocation create conflicts?

Water allocated to farming can affect water quality, ecosystem restoration, fishing, recreation, and local livelihoods.

Agriculture | How does agriculture drive land-use change in Latin America?

Global markets for meat and animal feed increase demand for agricultural land, contributing to land-use change.

Agriculture | What share of soy is used for animal feed in the lecture?

98%.

Agriculture | How does meat consumption connect to agricultural land-use change?

Meat production requires substantial land for livestock and feed, so higher meat demand can increase pressure to convert natural ecosystems.

Agriculture | What is the lecture's overpopulation-versus-overconsumption argument?

Rich countries consume more meat, meat production requires more land, and therefore rich countries are disproportionately responsible for agricultural land-use change.

Agriculture | What environmental issues are associated with conventional agriculture in the lecture?

Greenhouse-gas emissions, climate change, pesticides and herbicides, and effects on biodiversity.

Agriculture | What issue is raised by local versus imported food?

Transportation emissions are one factor in comparing food sources.

Agriculture | What changes are needed for a healthier and more sustainable food system, according to the lecture?

Shifts toward healthy diets, major reductions in food loss and waste, and improvements in food-production practices.

Agriculture | What systemic reforms are listed in the agriculture lecture's takeaways?

Changes to diet, sustainable production practices such as fertilizer and soil-health management, transport, and processing/packaging.

Agriculture | What are the three broad environmental effects of the food system?

Pollution, land-use change, and resource consumption (water and energy).

Fisheries | What is the economic importance of marine fisheries in the lecture?

About 180 million tonnes harvested annually, around $400 billion in value, and 39 million people employed.

Fisheries | What annual economic loss is attributed to overfishing and unsustainable management?

About $80 billion.

Fisheries | Why are marine fisheries culturally important?

Fishing can sustain traditions, identities, and community ways of life, not just income.

Fisheries | What lesson does the collapse of cod fisheries illustrate?

Oceans are not infinite, fishery dynamics are nonlinear, and maximum sustainable yield is not necessarily sustainable in practice.

Fisheries | What does MSY stand for?

Maximum sustainable yield.

Fisheries | Why may maximum sustainable yield fail to be sustainable?

Fish populations and fisheries behave nonlinearly, so harvesting at a calculated maximum can still contribute to depletion or collapse.

Fisheries | What is bottom trawling?

A fishing method in which nets are dragged along the seafloor to catch organisms.

Fisheries | What are potential environmental concerns associated with bottom trawling?

Damage to seafloor habitats and capture of non-target organisms (bycatch).

Fisheries | Which North Carolina agencies are listed for fisheries management?

The NC Division of Marine Fisheries (Department of Environmental Quality) and the NC Wildlife Resources Commission for joint coastal waters.

Fisheries | What federal agency is listed for fisheries management?

The National Marine Fisheries Service within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Fisheries | What is aquaculture?

Aquatic agriculture: farming organisms in aquatic environments.

Fisheries | What environmental issues can aquaculture share with terrestrial agriculture?

Nutrient pollution and the resources required to produce food.

Fisheries | What environmental problem has been associated with shrimp aquaculture in Southeast Asia?

Shrimp ponds have been created by clearing mangrove forests and can degrade freshwater quality for nearby communities.

Fisheries | Why are mangrove forests ecologically important?

They store carbon, provide habitat for fish, birds, and mammals, and help buffer storm surges.

Fisheries | What land uses are identified as contributors to global mangrove loss?

Commodity-based land-use changes including rice, shrimp, oil palm, and other cultivation.

Fisheries | What is sustainable aquaculture trying to achieve?

Aquatic food production while reducing environmental impacts such as nutrient pollution, habitat loss, and excessive resource use.

Pollution | What share of marine plastic is estimated to be microplastics in the lecture?

About 15–31% of the 9.5 million tons of marine plastics cited.

Pollution | What are two major sources of microplastics highlighted in the lecture?

Textiles and car tires; together they account for about 65% of the sources noted.

Pollution | What is derelict fishing gear?

Lost, abandoned, or discarded fishing equipment that remains in the marine environment.

Pollution | Why is derelict fishing gear harmful?

It can continue trapping or entangling marine organisms and contributes to marine debris.

Pollution | Which major oil spills are highlighted?

The Exxon Valdez spill in 1989 and the Deepwater Horizon spill beginning April 20, 2010.