Psych 1 Exam 2

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Used himself as test subject to study forgetting and memory retention through experiments on syllables.

• Nonsense syllables

• Information capacity

• Learning curve

• Forgetting curve

Nonsense Syllables

Meaningless 3 letter combos (DAX, BOM) to test memory w/o past experiences interfering

Information Capacity

Ppl can remember 7+-2 terms on a list after reading it

Learning Curve

Learning is slow when first learning a new skill but gets faster with more experience

Forgetting Curve

Memory loss happens quickly after learning then levels over time, combat with active recall

Free Recall Test

Ebbinghaus’ test, remembering lists of three-letter syllables with no assistance

Cued Recall Tests

Recall tests that give cues to information. Ex. Naming the 50 states with a outline map of the US

Recognition Tests

Recall tests that give options to recognize (MCQ questions, 7 dwarves)

Saving Tests

Recall tests; if you forgot something you learned in the past, you’ll relearn it faster than people learning it for the first time

Implicit Memory Tests

Recall tests where you’re primed with the answer

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories; despite not remembering doing a task, they improve with repition

3 Steps to Memory

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

Processing sensory information into recallable data, or moving short to long-term memory

Storage

Storing sensory memory as either short or long-term memory

Retrieval

Moving long to short term memory to bring to conscious memory, using retrieval cues like recall

Temporal Memory

How brain encodes, organizes, and retrieves memory through 3 stages of memory processing

Sensory Memory

Memory of stimuli that lasts a second, important ___ memory gets encoded into short term memory

Short-term Memory

Memory that lasts between 10 secs-few days, 7+-2 items, either forgotten or placed into long-term memory, only relevant info

Long-term Memory

Memories from short-term memory that’s important, subject to distortions and fabrications, debate if it’s ever forgotten

Sperling Sensory Memory Experiment

12 letters flash on screen for sec, ppl recall the ones in a row. Specific rows show sensory memory (temporary vision stimulus)

Declarative Memory

Explicit memory that requires conscious thinking, facts you can tell others

Semantic Memory

Type of declarative memory, general facts and knowledge

Episodic Memory

Type of declarative memory, life events

Nondeclarative/Procedural Memory

Implicit memory for motor skills and habits, tying shoes

Skill Learning Memory

Type of procedural memory; knowing how to ride a bike

Priming Memory

Type of procedural memory; old memory affects how you respond to a different stimuli, being more likely to use a word you heard recently

Conditioning Memory

Type of procedural memory; salivating when you see your favorite food

Serial Order Effect

Remembering first and last items in list and forgetting items in the middle, U-shape recall curve

Primacy Effect

Remembering more information at the beginning of the list

Recency Effect

Remembering more information at the end of the list

Proactive Interference

New material is easily lost due to remembering old material

Retroactive Interference

Old material is easily lost due to remembering new material

Reconstruction Effect

When tying memory together, we include inaccurate info to fill in the gaps

Hindsight Bias

People think past events were more predictable than they actually were

Memory Dependence

More likely to remember info if we match the situation we learned it in, state (classroom) and state (chewing gum)

Mnemonic Devices

Retrieval techniques, incl. acronyms, phrases, chunking

Method of Loci

Mnemonic technique; placing info in a familiar mental space. loci: location. Bed, cat, dog, table, keys, shade → house path

Spearman’s Psychometric Approach

Human intelligence is defined through looking at two factors: G (general) and S (specific talents/skills)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Three types of intelligence; analytical, creative, practical (street smarts)

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Core types of intelligences, not one general intelligence; linguistic, mathematical, visual, body, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential

Alfred Binet

Made first intelligence test; tested children failing in school; Mental age and Chronological age

Mental Age

Age children’s responses to intelligence tests show

Chronological Age

Actual age of child taking intelligence tests

Stanford Binet IQ Test

Lewis Terman from Stanford built ___ test off of Binet; more questions for more ages, tested fluid/quantitative/visual/working memory & intelligence, IQ Test

Binet-Simon Test

Intelligence test were kids tested remembering numbers, forming sentences, naming body parts; made by Alfred Binet and Test on Theodore Simon

Intelligence Quotient

Mental Age/Chronological Age * 100

Wechsler Scale

Made by David Wechsler; standardized intelligence scoring system; two forms: WAIS and WISC

WAIS

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (16+)

WISC

Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children

Raven’s Progressive Matrices Tests

Test-takers complete a missing piece in a grid of images; Nonverbal intelligence test; minimize language/cultural barriers

Koh’s Block Design Tests

Test-takers match colored cubes to a 2d diagram; Nonverbal intelligence test; minimize language/cultural barriers

Flynn Effect

Worldwide increases in intelligence over several decades, has recently stalled and even dropped

Jean Piaget

Studied child development after learning about Binet, studied his three children, created 4 stages of cognitive development

Schema

Concepts that organize information

Equilibrium

When a child’s environment matches the present schema

Disequilibrium

When a child’s environment conflicts with the present schema

Assimilation

Response to disequilibrium, interpreting experiences into existing schema; calling a cat a dog

Accommodation

Adapting existing schema to new experiences; creating a separate cat category from dog because it meows

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)

Learning outcomes and effects of actions through senses; issues: object permanence and sense of self; Piaget

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they’re not sensed; sensorimotor stage

Sense of Self

Understanding that body and actions belong to you; you pushed the toy; sensorimotor stage

Preoperational Stage (2-7)

Symbolic thinking and pretend play; issues: egocentrism, centration, Lack of Conservation; Piaget

Egocentrism

Tendency to understand situations from one own’s perspective and struggling to understand other’s; preoperational

Centration

Focusing on one characteristic of a stimuli and failing to notice other parts; preoperational

Lack of Conservation

Inability to understand an item can stay the same (volume) even when shape (height, length, container) changes; preoperational

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)

Able to do (reversible) operations and analogies, metacognition; Piaget

Metacognition

Ability to think about thinking; concrete operational

Formal Operational Stage (11-15)

Logical and abstract reasoning

Abstract reasoning

Thinking about concepts with no physical representation; beauty, morality; formal operational

Adolescent egocentrism

Heightened sense of self-consciousness; formal operational

Imaginary Audience

Believing everyone is paying attention to and judging you, leads to hyper-consciousness; formal operational

Personal fable

Belief that own thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique and understood by no one else; formal operational

Lev Vygotsky

Disagreed w/ Piaget that development timeline is set and can’t be accelerated; Zone of Proximal Development, Scaffolding

Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffolding

Apgar scale

Identifies and scores physical and mental development for newborns (heart rate, skin color etc)

Precocious Puberty

Early onset and rapid progression of puberty, occurs more in girls

Heritability

Estimate of how much variance in traits is due to genetics; high: nature, low: nurture

Sibling Studies

Comparison of siblings with different genetic overlap (identical, fraternal, siblings)

Self-fulfilling prophecies

Expectations about yourself change how you act in align with those expectations

Stereotypes

Overgeneralizations about groups of people, can be negative and positive

Prejudice

Unjustified attitude towards a member of a group solely because they’re apart of that group (belief)

Discrimination

Unfair treatment towards a member of a group solely because they’re apart of that group (action)

Attributions

How we explain causes/reasons for behavior

Internal Attributions

Explaining behaviors based on internal characteristics (they’re a bad driver because they’re Asian)

External attributions

Explaining behaviors based on the situation (they’re a bad driver because they had a bad morning)

Fundamental Attribution (Correspondence) Error

We explain other’s behaviors based off their characteristics more than their situation; doesn’t apply to collective cultures

Actor-Observer Effect

We explain our behaviors based off situation and explain others’ behaviors based off characteristic flaws

Conformity

Maintaining/changing behavior due to influence of others; often there’s no set social standard so we turn to group leaders

Autokinetic Effect

Participants guess distance of light, guesses of group converge into one group norm through social influence

Norm

Social standards of behavior and thoughts set by a group

Solomon Asch’s Line Study

Fake “vision test” comparing line lengths; 1 participant 7 actors, 7 actors gave the wrong answer and participant usually said wrong one too

Public compliance

Conforming to other peoples’ behaviors without believing in what they’re saying

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to others to be accepted/belong; 2 types: private acceptance and public compliance

Private Acceptance

Conforming to other peoples’ behavior out of genuine belief in what they’re doing/saying

Informational Social Influence

Changing opinions to conform to ppl we believe have accurate info

Self-Serving bias

We attribute personal failures to the situation and personal success to characteristics

Conformity Requirements & Effects

Quick response (increased conformity)

Unanimous (increased conformity)

Incentive for being correct (decreased conformity)

Bystander Effect

Decreased likelihood if helping someone if group doesn’t

Puralistic Ignorance

Situation where group rejects a norm privately but inaccurately assumes a norm because of others’ inactivity