child psych ch. 2 - theories of dev.

Grand Theories (developmental)

Psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive

Newer theories (sociology and biology)

Sociocultural, Evolutionary

Psychodynamic Theory

Places origins of adult personality and values in earlier experiences, often unconscious, often in childhood.

Sigmund Freud (Psychodynamic)

Four psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, and genital

Early conflict resolution determines personality patterns.

Erik Erikson (Psychosocial)

Eight developmental stages, five psychosocial stages built on Freud’s theory, but an additional three adult stages.

Erikson’s Stages

Trust vs. mistrust: Infancy

• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Toddlerhood

• Initiative vs. guilt: Preschool

• Industry vs. inferiority: School-age childhood

• Identity vs. role confusion: Adolescence

• Intimacy vs. isolation: Young adulthood

• Generativity vs. stagnation: Middle age

• Integrity vs. despair: Late life

Behaviorism (learning theory)

Focuses on observable behavior, describes the laws and processes by which behavior is

learned

Conditioning

repeated experiences teach behavior

Classical Conditioning

Behaviors can be learned by making an association between a meaningful stimulus and a

neutral stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

Watson (Behaviorism)

Argued that scientists should examine only what they could observe and measure

B. F. Skinner

Agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on the scientific study of observable behavior. Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons, and his daughter

Operant Conditioning

Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future

Social Learning Theory

Extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior

• Observational learning

• Imitation

• Albert Bandura (Bobo doll study)

They may do the opposite of what they observed.

Three Types of Learning

Classical Conditioning - learning occurs through association

Operant Conditioning - learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment

Social Learning - learning occurs through modeling what others do

Cognitive Theory

Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions. Changes in how people think over time.

Jean Piaget (Cognitive Theory)

Cognitive development occurs in four major age-related

periods or stages. Each period is characterized by certain processes related to

sense and logic.

Sensorimotor Period

birth to age 2, Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection. Infants learn object permanence during this period.

Preoperational Period

Begins when language develops (2-6 years). Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective. Children are not yet logical.

Concrete Operational

School age (6-11 years). Children begin to understand and apply logic. Schoolchildren are eager to learn facts and skills—spelling words, number facts, reading comprehension.

Formal Operational

Puberty (12 years through adulthood). Adolescents and adults can think logically about abstract ideas. Adolescents and adults understand possibilities and problems.

Some Techniques Used by Neuroscientists to Understand Brain Function

EEG, ERP, MRI, fMRI, PET

Information Processing Theory

Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output. Looks at the biochemical origins, the underlying neurotransmitters, hormones, digestive processes, and more affecting our thoughts and actions.

Sociocultural Theory

Suggests that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society. Culture is integral to a person’s development.

Lev Vygotsky (Sociocultural Theory)

Interaction between culture and education, Concepts of apprenticeship in thinking and guided participation, Language is an essential mediator between mentor and mentee. Words are the tools of thought.

Zone of Proximal Development

Skills, knowledge, and concepts that learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help.

Process of Joint Construction

New knowledge attained through mentoring.

Evolutionary Theory

To understand contemporary children and families, we need to understand what emotions, instincts, and habits were needed by homo sapiens over the past 200,000 years.

Eclectic Perspective

Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories of development are selectively applied rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.