Exam 3 Psych 101

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Sensation

the detection of external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain

Perception:

the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals

Bottom-up processing:

perception based on the physical features of the stimulus.

Top-down processing:

how knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the

interpretation of sensory information

Transduction:

the process by which sensory stimuli are converted to signals the brain can

interpret

Absolute threshold:

the minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a

sensation

Difference threshold

the minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference between two stimuli

Weber’s law

the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is based on a proportion of the original stimulus rather than on a fixed amount of difference

Signal detection theory (SDT):

it was once believed that detection was based on all-or-nothing process (absolute threshold) but detection requires judgment because of “noise.”

Sensory adaptation:

a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation

Synesthesia

a condition where the senses are combined in unusual ways

Retina:

the thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball; it contains the sensory receptors

that transduce light into neural signals

Rods:

retinal cells that respond to low levels of light and result in black-and-white perception

Cones:

retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light and result in color perception

Fovea

the center of the retina, where cones are

densely packed

Opponent-process theory:

different types of ganglion cells, working in opposing pairs, create the perception that R/G and B/Y are opposites (Hering, 1878/1964)

Hue:

consisting of the distinctive characteristics that place a particular color in the spectrum

Saturation:

the purity of the color (Are other colors blended with color?)

Lightness:

the color’s perceived intensity

Proximity:

the closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object

Similarity:

we tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other

Common fate:

we see things that move together as belonging to the same group

Good Continuation:

we tend to group together edges or contours that have the same orientation

Closure:

we tend to complete figures that have gaps

Illusory contours:

The principles of good continuation and closure can sometimes result in seeing contours, shapes, and cues to depth that do not physically exist

Object constancy:

correctly perceiving objects as constant in their shape, size, color, and lightness,

despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception

Four constancies:

Size, shape, color, and lightness constancy

Size constancy

How far the object is from us

Shape constancy:

what angle or angles we are seeing the object from

Color constancy

we need to compare the wavelengths of light reflected from the object with

those reflected from its background

Lightness constancy

we need to know how much light is being reflected from the object and from its

background

Prosopagnosia:

A deficit in the ability to recognize faces, despite the ability to recognize

other objects

Developmental prosopagnosia:

present from birth

Acquired prosopagnosia:

acquired following a brain injury

Fusiform gyrus:

a region of the temporal lobe critical for perceiving faces

Face inversion effect:

when faces are presented upside down, they are harder to recognize (this

effect is more severe than inverting other objects)

The Thatcher Illusion:

when presented upside down, it is hard to recognize that some of the features

have been inverted.

Isabel Gauthier’s Expertise Hypothesis:

faces are special only because they are objects with certain properties that we interact with extensively

Binocular depth cues:

cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes

Monocular depth cues:

cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone

Binocular disparity (or retinal disparity):

a depth cue; because of the distance between the two eyes, each eye receives a slightly different retinal image

Stereoscopic vision:

the ability to determine an object’s depth based on that object’s projections to each eye

Convergence:

a cue of binocular depth perception; when a person views a nearby object, the eye muscles turn the eyes inward

Pictorial depth cues:

Occlusion, Relative size, Familiar size.

Occlusion:

a near object occludes (blocks) an object that is farther away

Relative size:

far-off objects project a smaller retinal image than close objects do, if the far-off

and close objects are the same physical size

Familiar size:

because we know how large familiar objects are, we can tell how far away they are by the size of their retinal images

Linear perspective:

seemingly parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

Texture gradient:

as a uniformly textured surface recedes, its texture continuously becomes denser

Position relative to horizon:

all else being equal, objects below the horizon that appear higher in

the visual field are perceived as being farther away; objects above the horizon that appear lower in the visual field are perceived as being farther away

Motion Parallax:

a monocular depth cue observed when moving relative to objects, in

which the objects that are closer appear to move faster than the objects that are farther away

Motion-detection cues:

One clue that something is moving it when our eyes move to maintain focus on an object

Stroboscopic movement:

a perceptual illusion that occurs when two or more slightly different images are presented in rapid succession

Motion aftereffects (or waterfall effect):

if you stare at a waterfall and then turn away, the scenery you are now looking at will seem to move upward

Audition:

hearing; the sense of sound perception

Sound wave:

a pattern of changes in air pressure during a period of time; it produces the percept of a sound

Eardrum:

a thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate

Hearing pathway:

Sound waves → outer ear → eardrum (middle ear, where the hammer, anvil, and stirrup vibrate) → oval window (cochlea, in the inner ear) → basilar membrane → hair cells (primary receptors) → auditory nerve → thalamus → auditory cortex

Vestibular sense:

perception of balance determined by receptors in the inner ear

Gustation:

the sense of taste

Olfaction:

the sense of smell

Taste buds:

sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste

Olfactory epithelium:

a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell

Olfactory bulb:

the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes

Pheromones

Chemicals that trigger physiological or behavioral reaction in other animals/insects

Haptic sense:

the sense of touch

Learning:

a relatively enduring change in behavior,resulting from experience

Memory:

how we store information and retrieve knowledge.

Nonassociative learning:

learning to adjust responses after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event

Associative learning:

linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together

Social learning:

learning by instruction or observing how others behave

Habituation:

a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus

Dishabituation:

an increase in a response because of a change in something familiar

Sensitization:

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

Aplysia:

a type of marine invertebrate studied by Kandel and colleagues

Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning:

a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response

Conditioning trials:

a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are paired to produce a

reflex (e.g., salivation)

Neutral stimulus:

anything the animal can see or hear as long as it is not associated with the reflex being tested (e.g., a ringing bell)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning

(e.g., food)

Test trials:

the neutral stimulus alone is tested, and the effect on the reflex is measured

Unconditioned response (UR):

a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex

Conditioned stimulus (CS):

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

Conditioned response (CR):

a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned

Acquisition:

the gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Extinction:

a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned

stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery:

a process in which a previously extinguished conditioned response

reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus

Stimulus generalization:

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar, but not identical,

to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

Stimulus discrimination:

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Second-order conditioning:

a CS becomes associated with other stimuli associated with the US; this phenomenon helps account for the complexity of learned associations

Operant conditioning (instrumental

conditioning):

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the

likelihood that it will be performed in the future

Behaviorism

emphasized environmental effects on observable behaviors

Reinforcer:

a stimulus that occurs after a response and increases likelihood of response reoccurring

Positive reinforcement:

the administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior being repeated

Negative reinforcement:

the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior being repeated

Positive punishment:

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior

recurring

Negative punishment:

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring

Shaping:

an operant-conditioning technique that consists of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior

Successive approximations:

start with any behavior that even slightly resembles the desired behavior

Primary Reinforcers:

satisfy biological needs

Secondary Reinforcers:

do not satisfy biological needs